THE  CRADU 
HRISTIAN 


NOV  1  '  1916 


THE    CRADLE     OF 
CHRISTIANITY 

OR 

SOME    ACCOUNT    OF    THE    TIMES    OF 
CHRIST 


( 


NOV  1 1  M( 


S.  p.  T.  PRIDEAUX,  B.D.       ^^  -"^- 

RECTOR    OF    DOGMERSFIELD,    AND    LATE     INCUMBENT   OF   CHELSEA 
OLD   CHURCH   AND   DEAN   OF    WHITELANDS   COLLEGE 


WITH    A    FOREWORD    BY 

The  Rev.  JOHN  VAUGHAN,  M.A. 

CANON   OF   WINCHESTER 


NEW  YORK 
E.  P.  BUTTON  &  COMPANY 


FOREWORD 

It  is  very  necessary  for  students  of  the  New  Testament, 
if  they  would  acquire  an  adequate  knowledge  of  the 
subject,  to  gain  a  clear  idea  of  the  conditions  of  life  in 
Palestine  in  the  time  of  our  Lord.  Indeed,  without  such 
knowledge  much  that  is  contained  in  the  four  Gospels 
cannot  be  fully  understood.  Not  only  should  the 
historical  geography  of  the  Holy  Land  be  thoroughly 
grasped  that  a  right  setting  may  be  given  to  the  sacred 
narratives,  but  the  conditions,  social,  political,  reHgious, 
under  which  the  inhabitants  lived  should  be  realized  : — 
the  Roman  occupation,  the  Hebrew  customs,  the  parties 
into  which  Judaism  was  divided,  the  Apocalyptic 
literature  which  so  largely  influenced  the  religious 
thought  of  the  people. 

It  is  in  the  hope  of  being  able  to  present  this  know- 
ledge, in  a  concise,  and  at  the  same  time  popular  form, 
that  Mr.  Prideaux  has  been  led  to  pubhsh  "  The  Cradle 
of  Christianity."  The  basis  of  the  book  consists  of  two 
courses  of  lectures,  delivered  in  the  diocese  of  Winchester, 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Society  for  promoting  "  Higher 
Religious  Education."  The  little  volume  is  admirably 
suited  to  its  purpose.  Nowhere,  in  so  small  a  compass, 
do  I  know  such  a  clear  and  scholarly  account  of  the 


iv  FOREWORD 

religious  and  social  conditions  under  whicli  Christ  was 
born.  The  chapters  on  the  Messianic  Hope,  on  Hellenism, 
on  Apocalyptic  Literature  are  excellent ;  while  the 
treatment  of  the  sects  and  parties  of  the  Jews  reveals 
a  full  knowledge  of  the  latest  researches  on  the  subject. 
I  heartily  recommend  the  little  book.  It  should  prove 
most  useful  to  teachers,  and  students  of  Training 
Colleges,  and  to  intelligent  lay  folk  who  wish  to  under- 
stand their  New  Testaments.  May  it  receive  the 
recognition  it  so  thoroughly  deserves. 

JOHN  VAUGHAN, 

The  Close,  Winchester, 
Noveynber,  1915. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAfiB 

I.    Conditions  in  Palestine  in  the  time  of  our  Lord 

— Geographical  and  Historical          ...  ...        9 

II.    Roman  Influence— Social  Conditions            ...  32 

III.  The  Messianic  Hope       ...           ...           ...  ...      45 

IV.  Hellenism  AND  THE  Dispersion — "Wisdom"...  65 
V.    The  Apocalyptic  Literature      ...           ...  ...      87 

VI.    The  Synagogue— Sects  and  Parties               ...  104 

VII.    The  Sadducees  and  Pharisees    ...           ...  ...    123 

VIII.    The  Scribes  and  their  Teaching      ...           ...  147 

Index     ...            ...            ...            ...            ...  ...     179 


THE   FOLLOWING  ARE  THE   CHIEF 
BOOKS   REFERRED   TO 

E.  Bevan :  "  Jerusalem  under  the  High  Priests  "  (J.H.P.). 

E.  H.  Charles:  "Apocrypha  and  Pseudepigrapha  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment" (A.  &  P.). 

A.  Edersheim :  *'  Life  and  Times  of  Jesus  the  Messiah." 

W.  Fairweather :  "  From  the  Exile  to  the  Advent "  (E.A.). 
„  «'  The  Background  of  the  Gospels  "  (B.G.). 

H.  Latimer  Jackson:  "Eschatology  of  Jesus." 

Josephus :  '*  Antiquities  of  the  Jews  "  (Ant.). 
„  "  The  Jewish  Wars  "  (B.J.). 

,,  "Against   Apion "    (C.Ap.).        Mainly   from  Whiston's 

translation. 

L.  A.  Muirhead  :  "  The  Times  of  Christ." 

Shailer  Matthews  :  "  A  History  of  N.T.  Times  in  Palestine." 

Oehler :  "  Theology  of  the  O.T." 

W.  0.  E.  Oesterley :  "  Books  of  the  Apocrypha." 

„  „  "  Evolution  of  the  Messianic  Idea  "  (M.I,). 

„  „  "  The  Last  Things  "  (L.T.). 

H.  E.  Savage :  •'  Gospel  of  the  Kingdom." 

E.  Schiirer :  "  The  Jewish  People  in  the  Time  of  Jesus  Christ." 

Westcott :  "Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Gospels." 

Hastings'  Dictionary  of  the  Bible. 

Encyclopaedia  Biblica. 

N.B.— An  admirable  list  of  books  relating  to  the  subject,  by 
H.  M.  Slee  and  E.  J.  Grindley,  is  published  by  the  S.P.C.K. 


THE    CRADLE    OF 
CHRISTIANITY 

CHAPTER  I 

CONDITIONS   IN   PALESTINE 

The  country  with  wtiicli  we  have  to  deal  is  small : 
roughly  some  140  miles  long  by  50  miles  wdde  ;  but  in 
that  small  compass  it  exhibits  a  wonderful  variety  of 
both  terrain,  climate,  and  population.*  All  the  way  up 
the  coast  runs  the  great  maritime  plain,  embracing 
ancient  Philistia,  the  Plain  of  Sharon,  and  the  Phenician 
coast.  Inland  from  Philistia,  and  parallel  with  it,  runs 
the  Shephelah,  or  low  hills.  Inland  again  comes  the 
mountainous  ridge  that  stretches  from  the  Negeb  in  the 
south,  right  up  to  the  fertile  plain  of  Esdraclon  or 
Jezreel,  the  heart  and  centre  of  Israel's  life  all  through 
its  history.  Eastward  still  of  this,  and  still  parallel, 
runs  the  Jordan  valley,  at  varying  ranges  of  depth 
below  sea-level ;   and,  beyond  this,  the  desert.     North 

*  A  glance  at  a  map,  such  as  Murray's  Palestine,  in  '*  Handy 
Classical  Maps,"  1?.,  will  make  this  clear. 


10  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

of  the  Plain  of  Esdraelon  stretclies  rugged  Galilee, 
reaching  up  to  the  heights  of  Mounts  Lebanon  and 
Hermon. 

In  such  a  country  we  should  expect  a  great  variety 
of  climate,  and  so  we  find.  Dr.  George  Adam  Smith 
("  Historical  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land,"'  p.  56)  says  : 
"  In  Palestine  there  is  every  climate  between  the  sub- 
tropical of  one  end  of  the  Jordan  valley  and  the  sub- 
Alpine  above  the  other  end.  There  are  palms  in  Jericho 
and  pine  forests  in  Lebanon.  In  the  Ghor,  in  summer, 
you  are  under  a  temperature  of  more  than  100°  F.,  and 
yet  you  see  glistening  the  snow-fields  of  Hermon.  All 
the  intermediate  steps  between  these  extremes  the  eye 
can  see  at  one  sweep  from  Carmel — the  sands  and  plains 
of  the  coast ;  the  wheat-fields  of  Esdraelon  ;  the  oaks 
and  sycamores  of  Galilee  ;  the  pines,  the  peaks,  the 
snows  of  Anti-Lebanon."  And  he  contrasts  the  sheep- 
skin clad  shepherds  of  the  Judacan  uplands  and  their 
sohd  stone  houses  with  the  desert  BedaAvin  a  few  miles  to 
the  east,  living  in  tents  and  wearing  cottons. 

These  variations  result  from  the  great  variations  in 
level,  and  from  the  lie  of  the  land.  The  levels  range  from 
1300  feet  heloiv  sea-level,  to  9000  feet  above  ;  and  the 
country  is  afiected  both  by  the  influence  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean on  one  side,  and  the  desert  on  the  other.  Tem- 
perature and  weather  and  climate  must  necessarily  vary 
greatly  under  such  conditions  ;  and  so  must  occupations. 
Both  desert  and  highland  arc  dry  in  summer,  and  are 
fertilised  only  by  the  heavy  winter  rains  (cf.  Cant.  2^^). 
Elsewhere  are  "  large  and  copious  fountains,"  bursting 
forth  from  the  foot  of  the  hills  and  fertilising  oases  and 


CONDITIONS  IN  PALESTINE  11 

valleys.  They  are  best  near  Mount  Hermon,  fair  in 
Galilee  and  Samaria,  and  but  scanty  on  the  table-lands 
of  Judaea.  In  the  low-lying  plains  the  soil  is  fertile,  and 
productive  of  good  grain  crops  ;  and  the  hill  country  is 
suited  only  for  vines,  olives,  and  other  fruit  trees,  and 
the  pasturing  of  flocks. 

Together  with  these  physical  variations  went,  in 
early  days,  similar  variety  of  population.  We  are 
familiar  with  the  seven  original  Canaanite  tribes,  the 
Hittites,  Hivites,  Girgashites,  Amorites,  Canaanites, 
Perizzites,  and  Jebusites,  with  others  ;  and  Dr.  G.  A. 
Smith  (p.  58)  points  out  that  Palestine  has  always  been 
tenanted  by  a  great  variety  of  peoples,  the  character  of 
the  country  being  eminently  favourable  to  this.  In 
early  days  the  separate  valleys  and  tracts  of  country 
were  always  cut  off  from  one  another  by  the  configura- 
tions of  the  land  (we  are  not  unfamiliar  with  this  even 
in  England  to-day) ;  so  that  many  kinds  of  peoples  could 
live  close  to  one  another  without  mixing,  and  tribalism 
and  clannishness  flourish.  Thus,  after  the  settlement, 
each  of  the  Twelve  Tribes  had  its  own  appointed  territory, 
and  there  were  frequent  risings  and  feuds  of  one  against 
another,  as  the  early  historical  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment testify.  Moreover,  it  was  very  far  from  being 
the  case  that  these  aboriginals  were  exterminated  by 
the  invading  Israelites  ;  there  was  always  the  "  stranger 
within  the  gates,"  and  inter-marriage  naturally  resulted, 
in  spite  and  defiance  of  stringent  conmiands  to  the 
contrary. 

This  could  not  fail  in  its  effect  on  the  national  character 
and  temperament.    The  wide  and  varied  sources  from 


12  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

which  later  Israel  drew  its  blood  all  conduced  to 
catholicity  and  adaptabihty,  as  well  as  to  an  intense  and 
narrow  race-feeling.  And  when,  after  centuries  of 
discipline  and  training  the  Twelve  Tribes  became  a 
nation  ;  and  when  the  nation  had  gone  into  captivity 
and  become  a  People  of  Dispersion,  their  multiform 
ancestry  enabled  them  to  become  citizens  of  every 
country  to  which  they  went. 

In  origin  they  were  Semites  ;  and  their  long  ap- 
prenticeship in  the  Arabian  deserts  gave  them  a  strenu- 
ousness  and  determination  of  character,  and  a  detach- 
ment from  earthly  things.  In  the  desert,  says  Dr.  G.  A. 
Smith  (p.  29),  ''  seers,  martyrs,  and  fanatics  are  bred  "  ; 
and  under  these  influences  was  fostered  the  austere  and 
lofty  monotheism  w^hich  distinguished  the  Hebrew  from 
his  Canaanitish  neighbour,  and  enabled  him,  though 
after  many  lapses,  to  resist  the  attractions  of  other 
forms  of  w^orship.  The  next  stage  of  his  life,  among 
varieties  and  extremes  of  climate,  in  small  communities 
and  narrow  homes,  rendered  him  hardy  and  vigorous* 
passionate  and  warlike,  independent  and  proud,  versatile 
and  persistent ;  his  experience  of  the  ways  of  God  as 
revealed  in  nature  taught  him  that  God  possessed  moral 
attributes,  and  that  behind  nature  was  a  loving,  wise, 
and  righteous  Providence. 

Speaking  generally,  Palestine  may  thus  be  compared 
to  Wales.  It  has  about  the  same  extent  of  territory, 
and  the  same  physical  variations  of  mountain  and  valley, 
of  mild  and  severe  climate  ;  historically  the  conditions 
of  life  in  both  countries  have  been  in  many  ways  similar  ; 
and  the  peoples  of  both  have  shared  the  same  intense 


CONDITIONS  IN  PALESTINE  13 

nationalism,  the  same  passion  for  religion,  the  same 
excitability  and  pugnacity. 

It  is  not  easy  for  us,  who  come  of  Western  stock, 
and  live  in  an  age  of  comparative  order  and  security, 
to  realise  and  appreciate  the  spirit  and  conditions  of  our 
Lord's  times.  Probably  the  conditions  obtaining  in  the 
Balkan  States  are  the  nearest  parallel  in  modern  times  ; 
for  there  you  have  the  fiery,  fanatical  spirit,  fed  by 
religion  and  the  tribal  feeling  ;  you  have  the  perpetual 
ferment  and  unrest,  the  frequent  rising  and  bloodshed, 
the  intrigues  and  party  wire-pulling.  Many  of  us  have 
grown  up  with  the  idea  that  our  Lord  lived  a  quiet, 
peaceable  life  in  an  obscure  country  village,  such  as 
might  be  found  easily  in  Surrey  or  Hampshire,  plying 
His  carpenter's  trade  year  in  year  out ;  meditating, 
perhaps  rather  dreamily,  on  His  Father's  Love,  and 
nature  ;  w^hile  round  Him  rolled  the  tide  of  peaceful 
agricultural  life,  unmoved  as  a  rule  by  any  strong  feeling 
or  activity. 

But,  in  reality.  His  times  w^ere  as  stirring,  as  turbulent 
and  stormy,  as  uncertain,  as  bloodstained,  as  any, 
perhaps,  in  history.*  In  the  Koman  Empire,  of  which 
Judaea  was  but  a  part,  only  30  to  40  years  had  elapsed 
since  the  battles  of  Philippi  and  Actium,  and  the  struggle 
for  power  between  Julius  Caesar,  Pompey,  Crassus, 
Mark  Antony,  and  Octavian,  and  the  spells  cast  by 
Cleopatra,  a  not-distant  neighbour  of  Judaea.  And 
although  Octavian,  now  called  Augustus  Caesar,   was 

*  Nor  was  Nazareth  a  ''  backwater  " ;  see  Edersheim,  I.  p. 
146,  ff. 


14  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

firmly  settled  on  the  Imperial  throne,  the  malcontents  in 
the  Eastern  portion  of  his  Empire  had  to  be  schooled 
into  submission.  The  world  then,  like  Europe  of  recent 
years,  was  an  armed  camp  with  punitive  expeditions 
always  coming  and  going  ;  the  civil  power  rested  openly 
on  the  mihtary,  and  in  practice  martial  law  reigned. 

Those  who  have  studied  the  period  of  history  between 
the  two  Testaments  (and  some  such  study  is  essential  to 
a  proper  understanding  of  the  N.T.),  will  recollect  the 
unhappy  position  in  which  Judaea  found  herself,  succes- 
sively the  buffer-state  between  the  world-empires  of 
Babylon,  Persia,  Macedonia,  Syria  and  Egypt,  and, 
like  Belgium  and  the  Low  Countries,  the  cock-pit  of  the 
East.  She  could  not  help  being  drawn  into  the  politics 
of  the  time  ;  we  see  the  beginning  of  this  in  the  Old 
Testament :  self-preservation  prompted  alliances  now 
with  this  power,  now  with  that.  These  alliances  did  not 
always  lead  to  seli-jyreservation,  and  Jewish  allegiance  was 
not  infrequently  a  forced  allegiance.  The  old  narrow 
particularism,  the  tribal  patriotism,  of  the  Jew,  which 
had  helped  him  to  preserve  his  separate  existence  from 
early  days  and  all  through  the  disintegrating  times  of 
captivity,  was  further  challenged  and  stiffened  by  such 
men  as  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  and  under  the  Maccabaean 
rule  the  national  independence  had  been  gloriously 
defended  and  upheld.  Be  it  remembered,  too,  that 
national  life  to  the  Jew  was  indistinguishable  from 
what  we  should  call  Church  life  ;  patriotism  and  religion 
were  to  them  practically  convertible  terms ;  and 
national  defence  was  a  matter  not  so  much  of  pohtical 
expediency   or   commercial   security,   as   of  faith   and 


CONDITIONS  IN  PALESTINE  15 

conscience.  God  bad  given  His  Law  to  men  ;  Israel 
was  the  chosen  keeper  of  It ;  His  Temple  was  at  Jeru- 
salem ;  their  enemies  were  His  enemies  ;  and  He  and 
His  Law  must  be  defended  at  all  costs. 

In  our  Lord's  day,  they  had  their  own  rulers, 
certainly,  though  these  were  of  Edomite  stock,  in 
which  the  enmity  of  Jacob  aiid  Esau  was  perpetuated ; 
and  behind  these  were  the  Komans,  for  the  past  60 
years  the  conquerors  of  their  country,  and  for  this  reason 
the  source  of  continual  discontent,  obeyed  only  ^vith  a 
sullen,  grudging  obedience,  and  because  they  could  not 
be  disobeyed  with  impunity. 

Of  public  honour  there  was  none.  The  highest  in 
the  land  made  regular  use  of  bribes,  intrigues,  murder, 
as  weapons  of  state  to  secure  their  ends  ;  justice  of  a 
sort  was  done,  and  order  of  a  sort  maintained  ;  but  it 
was  inspired  more  by  expediency  than  by  principle.  The 
public  revenues  were  farmed  out,  so  that  the  collectors 
enriched  themselves  at  the  expense  of  the  people. 
Domestic  morality,  to  say  the  very  least,  was  not  en- 
couraged by  the  example  of  those  in  the  public  eye. 

The  story  of  the  century  preceding  our  Lord's  birth 
is  really  a  most  sad  and  pitiable  account  of  plot  and 
counterplot,  rebellion  and  its  punishment,  open  blood- 
shed and  secret  murder,  intrigues  and  liaisons  and 
shameless  debauchery,  bribes  and  peculations  in  peace, 
and  the  destruction  of  property  and  the  wasting  o£ 
territory  in  war.  A  graphic  account  is  given  by  Jose- 
phus  (a.d.  37 — c.  95),  in  his  "■  Antiquities  of  the  Jews  "  ; 
it  does  not  occupy  many  pages,  and  is  well  worth  the 
reading  ;  an  English  translation  is  to  be  found  in  most 


16  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

libraries  and  many  houses,  and  may  be  bought  at  no 
great  price. 

Here  is  a  brief  outline  of  public  events  in  these  years, 
giving  a  very  unpleasant  and  disturbing  contrast  with 
life  as  you  and  I  have  known  it,  at  all  events  until  the 
recent  terrible  European  War. 

In  the  year  65  B.C.  there  was  civil  war  in  Judaea,  the 
Pharisees  asserting  the  claims  of  Hyrcanus  II.  to  be  their 
High  Priest  and  King,  the  Sadducees  upholding  his 
brother,  Aristobulus  II.  Hyrcanus  was  at  first  obliged 
to  give  way  ;  but  at  Antipater's  instigation,  he  ob- 
tained help  from  Aretas,  King  of  Arabia,  and  eventually 
shut  up  Aristobulus  in  the  Temple,  and  laid  siege  to 
him. 

The  probable  course  of  events  was  materially  altered 
by  the  appearance  of  the  Roman  Pompey,  who,  having 
restored  order  in  Asia,  proceeded  to  Syria.  His  general, 
Scaurus,  was  charged  with  this  mission,  and  to  him  the 
rival  brothers  sent  the  usual  embassies,  with  the  usual 
bribes,  each  amounting  in  this  case,  according  to  Jose- 
phus  (Ant.,  14.  2.  3),  to  400,000  talents.  The  decision 
was  given  in  favour  of  Aristobulus,  who  promptly 
attacked  and  defeated  his  brother's  forces. 

The  next  year  Pompey  arrived  in  person,  and  to  him 
Aristobulus  sent  a  golden  vine,  worth  500  talents,  and 
soon  after  Hyrcanus  sent  Ms  representatives  and  gifts. 
Pompey  postponed  his  decision  between  the  rival 
claimants  ;  Aristobulus  suddenly  revolted,  and  retired 
to  Jerusalem.  Negotiations  broke  down,  because  the 
civil  population  were  willing  to  receive  Pompey,  but  the 


CONDITIONS  IN  PALESTINE  17 

soldiers  absolutely  refused.  The  Komans  managed  to 
enter  the  city,  but  could  not  take  the  Temple,  until  the 
Jews'  unwillingness  to  fight  on  the  Sabbath  gave  them  a 
slight  advantage  (cf .  p.  44).  After  three  months  a  breach 
was  effected,  and  the  Temple  fell.  Some  12,000  Jews 
are  said  to  have  been  killed,  and  Pompey  himself  entered 
the  Holy  of  Holies  ;  the  Temple  treasures,  however, 
he  left  untouched.  Aristobulus  was  taken  prisoner  to 
Rome  and  Hyrcanus  reinstalled  as  High  Priest.  So 
passed  the  temporal  power  of  the  Maccabean  house  to 
the  foreigner ;  and  while  they  still  possessed  the  high- 
priesthood,  and  a  large  measure  of  autonomy,  the  Jews 
had  for  ever  lost  their  independence,  and  became  once 
more  a  subject-people. 

Our  knowledge  of  Jewish  character  would  not  lead 
us  to  expect  a  calm  acquiescence  in  the  course  of  events. 
They  could  not,  and  did  not,  take  kindly  to  the  foreign 
yoke,  even  though  it  did  not  always  press  heavily. 
There  was  always  smouldering  the  fire  of  revenge  for  the 
insults  offered  to  Jehovah  and  to  His  people  ;  there  was 
always  the  innate  love  of  freedom  ;  there  was  the  memory 
of  past  glories,  and  the  promise  of  greater  to  come.  The 
narrow,  fanatical  patriotism  and  political  Messianic 
ideals  repeatedly  found  expression,  and  as  repeatedly 
brought  the  people  into  conflict  with  their  new  masters. 

In  57  a  rising  was  headed  by  Alexander,  a  son  of  the 
Aristobulus  II.  who  had  led  the  Jews  in  their  fatal  re- 
sistence  to  Pompey.  This  rising  came  to  little,  and  the 
Komans  took  the  opportunity  to  tighten  their  hold  on 
the  nation,  reorganizing  the  system  of  government, 
although  giving  the  Jews  some  little  autonomy. 

B 


18  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

The  next  year,  56,  Aristobulus  himself,  who  had 
escaped  from  Rome,  attempted  to  regain  his  old  position. 
But  he,  too,  failed,  in  spite  of  a  large  following  and  much 
bravery.  A  year  later,  again,  his  same  son  Alexander 
renewed  the  attempt,  \vith  like  result.  In  the  next  year, 
54,  the  Roman  triumvir  Crassus,  always  greedy  of  gold, 
robbed  the  Temple  of  10,000  talents'  worth  of  treasure, 
in  order  to  defray  the  cost  of  his  expedition  against  the 
Parthians.  He  was  defeated  by  them  and  fell  at 
Carrha? ;  whereon  the  Jews  again  revolted,  only  to  be 
again  worsted  by  Cassius,  and  30,000  of  them  were  sold 
into  slavery. 

Now  conies  more  and  more  to  the  fore  a  man  whose 
family  play  a  most  important  part  in  the  subsequent 
history,  Antipater,  the  governor  of  Idumea.  or  Edom. 
We  have  seen  him  helping  Hyrcanus  11.  in  his  struggle 
with  his  brother ;  and  now  he  is  made  Procurator  of 
Judaea,  47.  He  was  a  diplomatist  of  the  first  water, 
and  possessed  extraordinary  skill  in  ingratiating  himself 
with  other  people,  and  in  bringing  delicate  schemes  to 
a  successful  issue.  He  had  been  of  considerable  assist- 
ance already  to  the  Romans  ;  and  now,  by  his  astute- 
ness and  his  friendship  with  Julius  Caesar,  he  secured 
considerable  privileges  and  immunities  to  the  Jews. 
He  had  favoured  Pompey's  cause  in  the  struggle  between 
the  triumvirs  ;  but,  after  Pompey's  defeat  at  Pharsalia 
in  48,  he  changed  sides,  and,  fortunately  for  the  Jews, 
was  able  by  his  skill  and  his  resources  to  render  Caesar 
invaluable  aid  both  in  Egypt  and  in  Syria.  In  return 
for  this  Caesar  made  him  a  Roman  citizen  and  Pro- 
curator of  Judaea  ;  confirmed  Hyrcanus  as  hereditary 


CONDITIONS  IN  PALESTINE  19 

High  Priest ;  restored  some  of  its  judicial  powers  to 
the  Sanhedrin ;  allowed  Hyrcanus  to  rebuild  the  walls 
of  Jerusalem  ;  excused  the  Jews  from  supporting  Roman 
troops  and  from  supplying  auxiliaries,  and  from  paying 
tribute  in  the  Sabbatical  year. 

Joseph  us  (Ant.,  14.  10)  quotes  the  Roman  decrees 
made  at  this  time,  from  which  the  following  extracts  may 
be  of  interest : — 

"  I  also  ordain  that  he  (Hyrcanus)  and  his  children 
retain  whatsoever  privileges  belong  to  the  office  of  High 
Priest,  or  whatsoever  favours  have  been  hitherto  granted 
them.  And  if  at  any  time  hereafter  there  arise  any 
questions  about  the  Jewish  customs,  I  will  that  he  de- 
termine the  same.  And  I  think  it  not  proper  that  they 
should  be  obliged  to  find  us  winter  quarters,  or  that  any 
money  should  be  required  of  them. 

"...  that  the  Jews  be  allowed  to  deduct  out  of 
their  tribute  every  second  year  [in  the  Sabbatic  period]  a 
corns  of  that  tribute,  and  that  the  tribute  they  pay  be 
not  let  to  farm,  nor  that  they  pay  always  the  same 
tribute. 

"...  that  all  the  country  of  the  Jews,  excepting 
Joppa,  to  pay  a  tribute  yearly  for  the  city  of  Jerusalem, 
excepting  the  seventh,  which  they  call  the  Sabbatical 
year,  because  therein  they  neither  receive  the  fruit  ot 
their  trees,  nor  do  they  sow  their  land ;  .  .  .  and 
that  they  pay  the  same  tithes  to  Hyrcanus  and  his  sons 
which  they  paid  to  their  forefathers.  And  that  no  one, 
neither  president  nor  lieutenant  nor  ambassador,  raise 
auxiliaries  within  the  bounds  of  Judaea,  nor  may  soldiers 
exact  money  of   them   for    winter  quarters,  or  under 


20  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

any  other  pretence,  but  that  they  may  be  free  from  all 
sorts  of  injuries  ;  and  that  whatsoever  they  shall  here- 
after have,  and  are  in  possession  of,  or  have  bought,  they 
shall  retain  them  all. 

"  It  does  not  please  me  that  such  decrees  should 
be  made  against  our  friends  and  confederates,  whereby 
they  are  forbidden  to  live  according  to  their  own  customs, 
or  to  bring  in  contributions  for  common  suppers  and  holy 
festivals,  while  they  are  not  forbidden  to  do  so  even 
at  Rome  itself  ;  .  .  .  accordingly,  when  I  forbid  other 
Bacchanal  rioters,  I  permit  these  Jews  to  gather  them- 
selves together,  according  to  the  customs  and  laws  of 
their  forefathers,  and  to  persist  therein.  It  will  be  there- 
fore good  for  you  that  if  you  have  made  any  decree 
against  these  our  friends  and  confederates,  to  abrogate 
the  same,  by  reasons  of  their  virtue,  and  kind  disposition 
towards  us. 

"...  because  they  are  not  allowed  to  bear  arms  or 
to  travel  on  the  Sabbath  days,  nor  there  {i.e.  in  the 
Roman  armies)  to  procure  themselves  those  sorts  of  food 
which  they  have  been  used  to  eat  from  the  times  of  their 
forefathers,  I  do  therefore  grant  them  a  freedom  from 
going  into  the  army,  .  .  .  and  permit  them  to  use  the 
customs  of  their  forefathers,  in  assembling  together  for 
sacred  and  religious  purposes,  as  their  law  requires, 
and  for  collecting  oblations  necessary  for  sacrifices." 

Undoubtedly  Antipater  procured  indulgences  for 
the  Jews,  but  they  could  never  forget  that  he  was  an 
Edomite  ;  the  old  quarrel  of  Jacob  and  Esau,  true  to 
Jewish  vindictiveness,  had  never  been  allowed  to  die 
down  ;  the  hostility  of  Edom  at  the  time  of  the  Exodus, 


CONDITIONS  IN  PALESTINE  21 

and  their  conduct  at  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  in  the 
Babylonish  captivity,  were  never  forgotten  (cf.  Ps. 
1377).  He  was  a  foreigner ;  he  was  also  a  friend 
of  the  Koman ;  he  was  too  clever  to  be  trusted ; 
presently  open  hostility  was  shown  him  ;  and  in  43 
he  was  poisoned. 

He  had  appointed  two  of  his  sons  to  important 
positions  under  him,Phasael  to  be  Governor  of  Jerusalem, 
and  Herod  of  Galilee.  The  latter,  destined  to  figure  large 
on  the  stage  of  Jewish  history  as  Herod  the  Great,  was  a 
worthy  son  of  his  father,  and  commenced  to  distinguish 
himself  at  an  early  age.  There  was  near  his  jurisdiction 
a  large  robber-band,  the  plague  of  it  and  the  adjoining 
parts  of  Syria.  Herod  energetically  attacked  and  routed 
them,  capturing  and  executing  their  leader,  and  killing 
many  of  their  number.  But  the  Jewish  leaders  viewed 
with  disfavour  the  growth  and  power  of  Antipater's 
family,  and  they  arraigned  Herod  before  the  Sanhedrin 
on  a  technical  charge  of  exceeding  his  powers  ;  for  the 
Sanhedrin  alone  could  pronounce  a  sentence  of  death, 
and  this  only  after  due  trial. 

On  his  father's  advice  Herod  obeyed  the  summons  ; 
but  came  attended  by  a  considerable  bodyguard.  This, 
and  an  intimation  from  the  Roman  governor  of  Syria, 
caused  a  delay  of  the  sentence,  of  which  Herod  took 
advantage  and  fled  to  Syria.  His  hot  spirit  inclined 
him  to  take  active  revenge  on  the  Sanhedrin,  but  he  was 
dissuaded  by  his  father  and  brother. 

The  public  atmosphere  was  neither  peaceful  nor 
happy,  with  the  twin  causes  of  unrest  in  the  factions 
operating  in  Roman  and  Jewish  internal  affairs.    In 


22  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

43,  after  the  murder  of  Julius  Caesar,  Herod  characteristi- 
cally wins  the  favour  of  Cassius,  who  gives  him  the  com- 
mand of  Syria,  with  both  naval  and  land  forces  at  his 
disposal.  In  this  year  the  old  dispute  between  the  rival 
branches  of  the  Hasmonean  or  Maccabean  dynasty 
breaks  out  again  ;  Antipater,  as  already  noticed,  is 
poisoned,  and  open  risings  occur.  Herod  and  Phasael 
manage  to  hold  their  own  ;  and  when,  in  42,  after  the 
battle  of  Philippi,  Antony  comes  to  settle  affairs,  Herod, 
with  his  usual  bribes  and  his  usual  skill,  wins  the  favour 
of  Antony  ;  he  and  his  brother  are  made  tetrarchs,  with 
full  political  power.  The  house  of  Antipater  is  thus 
confirmed  in  its  position  by  the  Roman,  and  Herod  does 
his  best  to  heal  the  breaches  in  the  Jewish  nation,  by 
betrothing  himself  to  Mariamne.  This  lady  was  de- 
scended from  both  the  rival  branches,  and  by  the  marriage 
Herod  himself  was  allied  with  the  Maccabean  line, 
although  his  action  amounted  to  a  confession  of  the 
weakness  of  his  own  claim  to  his  position. 

And  Herod  was  by  no  means  secure  yet.  Antony 
soon  became  occupied,  poHtically  and  otherwise,  with 
Cleopatra,  and  in  40  Antigonus,  son  of  Aristobulus  II. 
Mariamne's  uncle,  bribed  the  Parthians  to  make  him 
King.  They  appeared  before  Jerusalem,  secured  Phasael 
and  Hyrcanus  the  High  Priest,  by  treachery,  plundered 
the  city,  and  left  Antigonus  installed  as  King  and  High 
Priest.  Herod,  warned  by  Phasael,  just  managed  to 
escape,  and  eventually  found  his  way  to  Rome.  Here 
he  persuaded  both  Antony  and  Octavian  to  support  him, 
and  the  Senate  decreed  him  King  of  the  Jews.  He  re- 
turned at  once  to  claim  his  kingdom,  and,  thanks  to  the 


CONDITIONS  IN  PALESTINE  23 

marauds  of  the  Parthians,  received  a  welcome  from 
many  of  his  subjects,  especially  in  Galilee.  But  Anti- 
gonus  was  gaining  power  ;  and  it  took  Herod  two  years 
of  plotting  and  scheming  and  manoeuvring  and  fighting, 
before  he  could  take  Jerusalem,  capture  Antigonus,  and 
finally  end  the  Hasmonean  rule.  Some  forty-five  of  the 
Sadducean  party,  who  had  favoured  Antigonus,  Herod 
at  once  executed ;  and  at  the  same  time  he  courted  the 
good  \vill  of  the  Pharisees  ;  they  were  not  professed  and 
active  politicians  like  the  Sadducees,  and  at  least  would 
not  hinder  him.  Antigonus  he  persuaded  Antony  to 
have  beheaded  ;  and  from  this  date  the  civil  and  religious 
authority  are  finally  separated,  the  Jewish  rulers  for  the 
past  century  having  been  both  High  Priests  and  Kings. 
The  Hasmonean  family  still  exists ;  and  their  intrigues 
and  Herod's  relation  to  them  oblige  him  to  instal  the 
young  Aristobulus,  brother  to  Herod's  wife  Mariamne 
and  sole  male  heir  of  the  Hasmoneans,  as  hereditary 
High  Priest.  But,  shortly  afterwards,  Herod  manages 
to  have  him  drowned  while  bathing,  himself  protesting 
loudly  and  making  great  profession  of  grief  at  this 
intentional  "  accident."     (35) 

Herod's  family  now  begin  to  plot  and  scheme  against 
him,  the  arch-intriguers  being  Alexandra  the  mother  of 
Mariamne,  and  Herod's  sister  Salome,  the  latter  poisoning 
Herod's  mind  with  doubts  as  to  Mariamne's  fidelity  to 
him,  his  wife  to  whom  he  seems  to  have  been  really 
attached.  In  spite  of  Alexandra's  machinations  and 
Cleopatra's  demands,  Herod  retains  Antony's  favour  ; 
and  he  also  successfully  prosecutes  a  war  against  the 
Kincf  of  Arabia, 


24         THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

In  31  was  fought  the  battle  of  Actium,  in  which 
Octavian  defeated  Antony  and  Cleopatra.  Matters 
might  now  have  gone  ill  for  Herod ;  but  his  power 
and  reputation,  together  with  his  skill  and  daring, 
induced  Octavian  to  retain  him  as  the  ally  of  Rome 
and  confirm  him  in  his  Idngdom.  His  domestic  troubles 
increased  more  and  more  ;  in  29  he  executed  Mariamne, 
on  a  false  charge  of  trying  to  poison  him.  He  fell  ill, 
and  became  mad  with  grief  at  what  he  had  done  ; 
whereat  Alexandra  plotted  to  recover  the  kingdom  for 
herself  and  her  grandsons,  only  to  follow  Mariamne. 
In  25  a  number  of  others,  possibly  dangerous,  were  also 
put  to  death.  No  wonder  that  Augustus  said,  "  It 
were  better  to  be  Herod's  pig  than  his  son.'* 

For  the  next  twelve  years  Herod  had  no  rival,  and 
the  peace  of  the  empire  was  assured,  under  the  rule  of 
Octavian,  now  called  Augustus.  Herod  takes  this 
opportunity  to  consolidate  and  build  up  his  kingdom, 
and  ingratiate  himself  still  more  with  his  Imperial 
master.  The  ravages  of  the  previous  wars  and  rebellions 
are  repaired  ;  old  cities  and  fortresses  are  restored  ;  and 
new  ones  built.  These  not  all  without  design  ;  and  they 
are  used  for  the  purpose  of  rendering  his  own  position 
more  secure,  and  to  preserve  the  balance  of  parties 
in  an  always  turbulent  and  factious  people.  Thus 
Samaria  is  rebuilt  and  enlarged,  and  called  Sebaste 
(= Augusta)  as  a  compliment  to  the  Emperor  ;  and  the 
neighbourhood  colonised  with  his  veteran  troops,  who, 
with,  the  native  Samaritans,  act  as  a  check  on  the  dis- 
affected spirits  of  Jerusalem.  Other  strongholds  form 
a  barrier  on  the  north-east  or  Syrian  border,  and  against 


CONDITIONS  IN  PALESTINE  25 

Arabia  in  the  south.  At  Caesarea,  now  so  called  for 
the  first  time,  a  magnificent  harbour  is  constructed. 
His  territories  are  from  time  to  time  increased  by- 
Augustus.  His  cities  are  embellished  with  fine  buildings 
and  works  of  art.  Theatres  and  amphitheatres  are  built, 
Greek  games  and  gladiatorial  shows  are  introduced, 
with  other  foreign  and  Gentile  customs.  In  Jerusalem 
itself  he  builds  a  palace  for  his  own  use,  and  commences 
to  restore  and  complete  the  Temple. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  in  many  ways  Herod's 
rule  was  most  beneficial,  and,  but  for  his  unscrupulous 
methods  and  his  domestic  record,  he  would  have  earned 
his  title  of  "  the  Great."  His  public  works,  although  due 
to  his  passion  for  display,  were  amazingly  extensive, 
and  must  have  added  enormously  to  the  wealth  and  well- 
being  of  his  subjects.  His  activity  was  endless,  and  his 
action  prompt.  His  skill  in  governing  his  headstrong 
people,  and  preserving  friendship  with  Augustus,  to 
say  nothing  of  the  manoeuvrings  and  diplomacy  by 
which  he  attained  his  position,  all  bespeak  abihties 
and  energies  of  no  mean  order.  He  was  a  strict  ruler 
and  suppressed  disorder  with  a  firm  hand,  and  reduced 
the  robber-bands  which  overran  the  mountainous 
district  of  Trachonitis.  When  a  famine  occurred  in 
24,  50,000  men  were  employed  on  public  works  ;  his 
own  furniture  and  plate  he  sold  for  the  benefit  of  the 
sufferers  ;  on  two  occasions  he  remitted  part  of  the 
taxes. 

He  was  not  popular ;  such  a  man  could  never  win 
his  people's  love  ;  he  could  only  inspire  fear  and  respect, 
and    some    grudging    gratitude.    He    was,    above    all 


26  THE  CEADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

things,  a  diplomatist ;  lie  played  off  one  party  against 
another,  and  kept  the  favour  of  all  by  occasional  con- 
cessions and  benefactions.  These  could  not  be  denied, 
and  were  usually  substantial ;  and  they  were  effective 
to  prevent  opposition  and  grievances  from  becoming 
serious.  But  no  one  can  have  credited  him  with  sin- 
cerity. He  cajoled  the  Jews  by  his  personal  respect 
for  the  Law  and  the  Temple,  for  their  opinions  and 
prejudices  ;  by  his  generosity  and  pubUc  services  ;  by 
his  rebuilding  of  the  Temple.  But  the  heart  was  taken 
out  of  all  these  actions  by  his  love  of  Gentile  customs  ; 
by  the  games  and  sports  which  he  introduced  ;  by  temples 
in  his  new  cities  ;  by  the  pagan  trophies  which  he 
erected  in  Jerusalem  ;  and,  above  all,  by  the  golden 
eagle  which  he  erected  over  the  main  gate  of  the  Temple, 
a  most  wanton  and  obvious  insult.  He  was  always 
suspicious  and  jealous,  unscrupulous  and  selfish,  and 
maintained  an  army  of  spies  and  secret  agents  ;  at 
times  he  even  went  about  himself  disguised  among  his 
people. 

The  following  extracts  from  Josephus  may  be  of 
interest : — 

"  He  was  brutish,  and  a  stranger  to  all  humanity. 
...  a  man  ambitious  of  honour,  and  quite  overcome 
by  that  passion,  he  was  induced  to  be  magnificent, 
wherever  there  appeared  any  hopes  of  a  future  memorial 
or  of  reputation  at  present."     (Ant.,  16.  5.  4.) 

"  A  man  he  was  of  great  barbarity  towards  all  men 
equally,  and  a  slave  to  his  passions  ;  but  above  the  con- 
sideration of  what  was  right :  yet  was  he  favoured  by 
fortune  as  much  as  any  man  ever  was,  for  from  a  private 


CONDITIONS  IN  PALESTINE  27 

man  he  became  a  king  ;  and  though  he  were  encompassed 
with  ten  thousand  dangers,  he  got  clear  of  them  all, 
and  continued  his  life  to  a  very  old  age."  (Ant., 
17,8.1.) 

"  Now  Herod  had  a  body  suited  to  his  soul,  and  was 
ever  a  most  excellent  hunter,  where  he  generally  had 
good  success,  by  means  of  his  great  skill  in  riding  horses  ; 
for  in  one  day  he  caught  forty  A^dld  beasts  :  ...  He  was 
also  such  a  warrior  as  could  not  be  withstood  :  many 
men  therefore  there  are  who  have  stood  amazed  at  his 
readiness  in  his  exercises,  when  they  saw  him  throw  his 
javelin  directly  forward,  and  shoot  the  arrow  upon  the 
mark."     (B.  J.,  1.  21.  13. ;  cf.  11,  12.) 

Playgoers  will  remember  the  drama  of  Herod's 
life  by  Mr.  Stephen  Phillips,  which  gives  a  vivid 
picture  of  his  character  and  some  of  the  scenes  in  his 
life. 

We  need  not  pursue  the  last  years  of  his  reign  of 
thirty-seven  years  in  detail.  Unluckily  for  him,  his 
two  sons  by  Mariamne,  Aristobulus  and  Alexander, 
grew  up,  and  became  the  centre  of  fresh  family  jealousies 
and  intrigues,  with  Antipater,  his  eldest  son  by  another 
wife,  the  succession  to  the  throne  being  the  cause  of  the 
dissension.  For  ten  or  twelve  years  the  trouble  con- 
tinued, and  was  aggravated  by  a  rebellion  in  Trachonitis, 
which  led  Herod  into  war  with  Arabia,  and  lost  for 
him  Augustus'  friendship  for  the  time  being.  At  home 
Antipater  plotted  incessantly,  also  his  own  brother, 
Pheroras.  In  the  words  of  Dr.  Fairweather,  "  His  heart 
became  a  hell  within  him,  his  home  a  howling  wilderness, 
and  his  whole  existence  a  nightmare."    Or,  to  quote 


28  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

Josephus  :  "  These  suspicions  afflicted  him,  and  becoming 
more  and  more  uneasy,  he  believed  everybody  against 
everybody  ...  he  was  overrun  with  suspicion  and 
hatred  against  all  about  him.  .  .  .  What  more  can 
be  said,  but  that  those  who  before  were  the  most  intimate 
friends,  were  become  wild  beasts  to  one  another  ;  .  .  . 
and  a  melancholy  solitude  rendered  the  kingdom 
deformed,  and  quite  the  reverse  to  that  happy  state 
it  was  formerly  in."     (Ant.,  16.  7.  3  ;  8.  2,  6.) 

One  person  after  another  suffered  the  penalty  of 
his  suspicion  or  their  o^vn  dishonesty ;  the  painful  and 
horrible  disease  which  had  been  growing  on  him  grew 
worse ;  and  five  days  after  the  death  of  Antipater  his 
own  end  came.  Knowing  that  the  Jews  would  not 
lament  his  death,  with  characteristic  and  fiendish  care 
he  arranged  for  a  public  massacre,  so  as  to  secure  the 
mourning  which  would  not  otherwise  have  been  made. 
Happily,  his  orders  were  not  carried  out. 

After  his  death  the  intrigues  did  not  cease,  and  it 
was  the  signal  for  an  outburst  of  disorder.  The  golden 
eagle  over  the  Temple  Gate  was  torn  down  (this,  actually, 
before  Herod's  death),  and  the  people  demanded 
vengeance  for  the  punishment  meted  out  to  the  ring- 
leaders. Three  thousand  perished  in  the  suppression 
of  this  disturbance,  at  the  Passover ;  and  at  Pentecost 
hostilities  began  again  in  the  Temple,  this  second  rising 
only  being  put  down  with  great  slaughter.  The  census 
under  Qnirinius  was  accompanied  with  opposition  and 
bloodshed.  In  fact,  from  now  began  the  steady  rise 
of  the  fanatical,  politico-Messianic  movement,  often 
finding   spasmodic   expression,   and   associated  chieiiy 


CONDITIONS  IN  PALESTINE  29 

with  the  party  of  the  Zealots,  which  led  to  the  final 
outburst,  and  downfall  of  the  nation,  in  the  years 
A.D.  66-70.    (See  Jos.,  Ant.,  17.  10.  1  ff.) 

We  are  now  in  a  position  to  understand  a  little  of 
the  atmosphere  into  which  our  Lord  was  born,  and  in 
which  He  lived  and  taught,  and  to  appreciate  some  of 
the  allusions  to  contemporary  events  made  by  the  writers 
of  the  New  Testament. 

Of  Herod's  craft,  cruelty,  and  methods  we  have  an 
excellent  example  in  the  incident  of  the  visit  of  the 
Magi  and  the  massacre  of  the  Holy  Innocents.  The 
mention  of  a  king  born  to  the  Jews  at  once  arouses  his 
fear ;  he  consults  the  Jewish  authorities ;  pretends 
sympathy  with  the  Magi ;  and,  when  foiled,  kills  out- 
right all  the  possible  male  infants  in  Bethlehem. 

Pictures  of  court  life  are  given  in  the  accounts  of 
Herod  Antipas  (his  son)  and  his  relations  with  Herodias 
and  her  daughter,  and  the  murder  of  St.  John  Baptist. 
"  The  rulers  of  the  Gentiles  lord  it  over  them,"  in  con- 
trast to  which  the  Christian  ruler  is  to  be  servant  of  all 
(Mt.  2025) ;  the  Jews  looked  for  the  seats  of  honour 
on  the  Messiah's  right  and  left  hand  in  His  kingdom 
(Mt.  2021),  but  the  greatest  in  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven 
are  those  who  turn,  humble  themselves,  and  become  as 
little  children  (Mt.  18^).  Herod  Antipas  is  named  by 
Christ  "  that  fox  "  (Lk.  1332);  and  the  visit  of  Archelaus 
(possibly  also  of  Herod  the  Great  and  of  Antipas)  to 
Rome  "  to  receive  a  kingdom  "  furnishes  a  text  for 
the  parable  of  the  pounds  (Lk.  19^^).  The  "  nobleman  " 
kills  his  rebellious  subjects  on  his  return ;  stewards  are 


30         THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

sufficiently  unjust  to  form  the  subject  of  another 
parable  (Lk.  16^,  20^) ;  and  judges  "  fear  not  God  nor 
regard  man  "  (Lk.  182). 

In  the  public  mind  Messianism  and  nationalism 
were  one  and  the  same  thing.  The  disciples  ask,  even 
at  the  end  of  all  things,  if  Jesus  is  now  about  to  restore 
the  kingdom  to  Israel  (Acts  1^) ;  during  His  ministry 
He  has  repeatedly  to  contend  -svith  the  attempts  of  the 
people  to  "come  Avith  force  and  make  Him  a  long'* 
(Jn.  6^^).  Risings  and  their  frequency  are  alluded  to 
by  Gamaliel,  when  discussing  what  to  do  with  the 
arrested  Apostles  (Acts  5^5) ;  Barabbas  had  taken  part 
in  one  such,  which  had  led  to  bloodshed.  Christ  said 
that  He  came  to  send  ''  not  peace,  but  a  sword " 
(Mt.  1034).  "  Wars  and  rumours  of  wars  "  are  foretold 
by  Christ,  and  the  betrayal  of  parents  by  children  and 
children  by  parents  (Mt.  24^,  lO^i).  Robbers  are  frequent 
on  the  road  from  Jerusalem  to  Jericho  (Lk.  lO^o). 
Pilate  had  forcibly  suppressed  a  rising  in  Galilee  during 
some  feast,  and  had  "  mingled  their  blood  with  their 
sacrifices "  (Lk.  13^).  Caiaphas  objects  to  arresting 
Him  during  the  feast,  "  lest  there  be  a  tumult  among 
the  people "  (Mt.  2G''^).  The  disciples  were  ready  to 
defend  Christ  \vith  arms,  and  St.  Peter  actually  com- 
menced to  do  so  (Lk.  22^9).  This  had  been  expected 
by  the  authorities,  and  a  considerable  force  of  armed 
men  attended  Judas  (Jn.  IS^).  An  armed  Levitical 
guard  always  garrisoned  the  Temple,  something  like 
the  Papal  guard  at  Rome  ;  and  when  St.  Paul  had  been 
forcibly  rescued  by  the  Roman  troops,  stationed  in 
Fort  Antonia,  from  the  fury  of  the  populace,  and  was 


\ 


CONDITIONS  IN  PALESTINE  31 

sent  to  Caesarea,  his  escort  cousistecl  of  no  fewer  than 
200  infantry,  200  spearmen  or  light  infantry,  and  70 
mounted  men  (Acts  526,  2323). 

A  strange  background  this  to  the  teaching  of  the 
Beatitudes :  "  Blessed  are  the  meek,  the  poor  in  spirit, 
the  merciful,  the  peacemakers,  they  that  hunger  and 
thirst  after  righteousness,"  "  Kesist  not  him  that  is 
evil,"  "  Love  your  enemies."  The  greatest  in  the 
Kingdom  of  Heaven  must  be  servant  of  all.  The  dis- 
ciples, St.  James  and  St.  John,  are  rebuked  for  calling 
down  divine  vengenace  on  the  Samaritans  (Lk.  9^^). 
No  wonder  that  people  could  not  make  Him  out,  and 
failed  in  their  allegiance  to  Him. 


CHAPTER  II 

ROMAN  INFLUENCE— SOCIAL  CONDITIONS 

Public  order  and  control  was,  according  to  Eoman 
policy — a  policy  wisely  followed  by  the  British  Empire 
in  modern  times — left  in  the  hands  of  native  and  local 
rulers,  when  they  could  be  trusted,  with  the  Imperial 
power  and  armed  forces  to  fall  back  on,  if  required. 
Herod  the  Great,  e.g.  was  a  "  King  ally,"  with  the  right 
of  coining  money  and  raising  troops.  The  latter  might 
only  be  of  sufficient  strength  for  policing  purposes  ;  and 
further  forces  might  be  demanded  as  auxiliaries  in  time 
of  war  ;  a  tribute  was  generally  payable,  and  large  gifts 
expected  towards  the  Imperial  coffers.  Thus  the  con- 
dition of  the  people  depended  very  largely  on  the  personal 
character  of  their  ruler,  as  well  as  on  the  relations 
existing  between  the  nation  and  the  Emperor.  During 
the  last  century  B.C.  and  the  first  century  A.D.,  the  form 
of  government  and  administration  was  repeatedly 
changed,  the  only  constant  factor  being  the  Roman 
power  and  authority  behind  all. 

The  Jews  fared  better  than  most  other  nations  ;  and 
their  known  character  for  turbulence  and  desperate 
resistance  when  oppressed,  and  the  skill  of  their  rulers, 
obtained  for  them  everywhere  great  concessions  and 


KOMAN  INFLUENCE— SOCIAL  CONDITIONS  33 

privileges.  They  were  allowed  to  live  under  their  own 
laws  ;  were  often  excused  taxes,  and  allowed  to  collect 
their  own  taxes  for  Temple  purposes  ;  they  were  often 
exempt  from  military  service  ;  their  scruples  about  the 
Sabbath  were  respected  ;  and  their  rehgious  funds  and 
property  protected.  (Cf.  Jos.,  Ant.,  li,  10.  2,  quoted 
above,  p.  19  ;  and  16.  2.  3  ;   6.  1  fl.) 

It  is  easy  to  see  how  this  treatment  encouraged  and 
fostered  the  peculiar  national  spirit  of  the  Jews,  so 
marked  a  characteristic  of  their  race  down  to  the  present 
day. 

Everywhere  in  the  New  Testament  the  Roman  rule 
meets  us.  St.  Luke  gives  a  list  of  the  governors  at  the 
time  of  the  commencement  of  our  Lord's  ministry, 
and  the  census  during  which  He  was  born  was  carried 
out  under  Roman  orders,  Quirinius  being  Governor  of 
Syria,  and  charged  with  it,  and  the  census  also  being 
made  on  the  Jewish  tribal  basis,  according  to  the  Roman 
practice  of  using  local  methods  ani  concihating  local 
feeling.  (This  is  why  Joseph  and  Mary  had  to  make 
their  long  journey  from  Nazareth  to  Bethlehem.)  In 
the  account  of  the  Passion,  and  in  the  Acts,  the  Romans 
figure  largely  :  the  centurions  and  the  soldiers  ;  Pilate 
the  Procurator  of  Judaea,  who  comes  into  Jerusalem 
at  the  Passover  with  his  troops,  so  as  to  preserve  order ; 
Herod  Antipas,  the  Jewish  Tetrarch  of  Galilee  ;  Fehx, 
and  Porcius  Festus,  the  Procurators  of  Judaea,  with 
their  forces  and  authority.  Roman  justice,  other- 
wise strict  and  good,  is  not  well  illustrated  by  Pontius 
Pilate  nor  by  Fehx  ;  but  this  defection  must  be  attri- 
buted  more   to   the   men   than   to   the   system.    The 

c 


34         THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

centurions,  as  has  often  been  pointed  out,  are  uniformly 
well  spoken  of ;  the  servant  of  one  was  healed  by  Christ, 
and  our  Lord  said  He  had  "  not  found  so  great  faith, 
even  in  Israel "  (Matt.  8^) ;  this  man  was  friendly  to 
the  Jews  and  had  built  them  their  Synagogue  in 
Capernaum.  At  the  Crucifixion  the  heart  of  the 
centurion  in  charge  was  touched  ;  the  Sufferer  on  the 
Cross  was  offered  by  some  of  the  soldiers  sour  wine 
to  quench  His  thirst ;  and  His  death  drew  from  the 
centurion's  lips  an  expression  of  something  very  near 
the  ascription  of  divinity.  Cornelius  (Acts  10^)  was 
a  devout  and  sincere  adherent  of  the  Jewish  synagogue 
at  Caesarea,  popular  and  well-reported  of.  The  centurion 
who  rescues  St.  Paul  in  Jerusalem  is  afraid  of  what  may 
happen  when  he  learns  that  he  has  bound  a  Roman 
citizen  and  is  about  to  scourge  him.  St.  Paul's  right 
of  appeal  to  Caesar  is  unhesitatingly  accepted ;  and 
Julius,  the  centurion  who  has  charge  of  him,  treats  him 
with  consideration  and  indulgence.  (Acts  22^9,  26^2, 
27 ij  3^  43^)  We  gather  that  jurisdiction  was  summary, 
and  that  the  authorities  had  the  right  of  impressing  or 
commandeering  the  services  of  civihans  ;  as  in  the  case 
of  Simon  of  Cyrene  at  the  Crucifixion,  and  cf .  the  allusion 
in  Mt.  5^1.  The  soldiery,  as  in  every  age  until  the 
present,  bore  a  reputation  for  violence  (Lk.  Si'*) ;  this, 
too,  is  illustrated  by  the  Passion.  They,  like  every  one 
else,  could  be  bribed.  (Mt.  28i2,  Acts  24^6,  Jos., 
Ant.,  14.  12.  1,  2  ;  Matthews,  pp.  93,  110,  113.) 

With  corruption  prevaihng  in  high  places,  and  with 
bakhsheesh  (on  a  grand  scale)  as  a  recognised  business 
method,  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  a  low  standard  of 


ROMAN  INFLUENCE-SOCIAL  CONDITIONS  35 

public  honesty  ;  the  general  depravity  and  luxuriousness 
of  society  at  the  time  would  encourage  covetousness, 
and  with  it  dishonesty.  The  publicans,  or  officials  of 
the  Imperial  revenues,  through  whom  the  taxes  and 
imposts  were  farmed  out,  were  practically  encouraged 
in  dishonesty  by  the  system,  which  required  them  to 
send  up  so  much  to  headquarters,  paid  them  no  salary, 
but  left  it  to  them  to  get  what  living  they  could  by  over- 
charging those  from  whom  the  taxes  were  due.  These 
men,  to  the  lower  order  of  whom  belonged  St.  Matthew 
and  Zacchaeus,  were  naturally  everywhere  most  un- 
popular, and  were  classed  with  "  sinners  "  in  the  current 
phraseology.  Their  avarice,  vexatious  interferences, 
and  exactions,  and  their  position  as  servants  of  the 
Romans,  all  combined  to  embitter  the  population  against 
them  (Lk.  3i3,  19'), 

The  population  of  Palestine  has  been  estimated  at 
about  three  millions,  living  in  an  area  of  6000  square 
miles  on  the  west  of  Jordan,  but  such  estimates  are 
very  difficult  to  make.  Thus  Dr.  Shailer  Matthews 
gives  the  Jerusalem  population  as  100,000,  and  Dr. 
Edersheim  as  twice  that  number  or  more.  Small  towns 
and  villages  abounded,  and  must  have  lain  close  to  each 
other ;  in  Galilee  alone,  says  Josephus  (Life,  45)  there 
were  240  cities  and  villages  ;  and  the  country  was  very 
fertile,  so  much  so,  he  says,  as  even  to  provoke  the  lazy 
to  cultivate  it  and  reap  its  rich  returns  (B.  J.,  3.  3.  2). 
Here  is  part  of  his  description  of  it :  *'  Its  nature  is 
wonderful,  as  well  as  its  beauty  ;  its  soil  is  so  fruitful 
that  all  sorts  of  trees  can  grow  upon  it,  and  the  in- 
habitants accordingly  plant  all  sorts  of  trees  there  ; 


36  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

for  the  temper  of  the  air  is  so  well  mixed  that  it  agrees 
very  well  with  those  several  sorts,  particularly  walnuts, 
which  require  the  coldest  air,  flourish  there  in  vast 
plenty ;  there  are  palm-trees  also,  which  grow  best  in 
hot  air  ;  fig-trees  also  and  olives  grow  near  them,  which 
yet  require  an  air  that  is  more  temperate.  One  may 
call  this  place  the  ambition  of  nature,  where  it  forces  those 
plants  that  are  naturally  enemies  to  one  another  to 
agree  together  ;  it  is  a  happy  contention  of  the  seasons, 
as  if  every  one  of  them  laid  claim  to  this  country  ;  for  it 
not  only  nourishes  different  sorts  of  autumnal  fruits 
beyond  men's  expectations,  but  preserves  them  a  great 
while  ;  it  supplies  men  with  the  principal  fruits,  with 
grapes  and  figs,  continually,  during  ten  months  of  the 
year,  and  the  rest  of  the  fruits  as  they  become  ripe ; 
together  through  the  whole  year  :  for  besides  the  good 
temperature  of  the  air,  it  is  also  watered  from  a  most 
fertile  fountain."  (B.  J.  3.  10.  8 — a  passage  which 
throws  light  on  Mk.  Ili3). 

In  fact,  Palestine  as  a  whole  was  very  fertile  and 
prosperous  (Ant.,  15.  5.  1),  and  in  Herod's  time  the 
building,  and  the  luxury  of  the  aristocracy,  must  have 
occasioned  ample  employment  and  circulation  of  money. 
In  all  ages  the  Jews  have  been  keen  traders  and  shrewd 
hands  at  a  bargain  ;  and  in  the  merchant-classes  there 
must  have  been  not  a  few  incomes  more  than  comfort- 
able. 

No  fewer  than  118  imports  of  different  kinds  have 
been  identified,  and  the  prices  of  some  of  these  were 
high.  Thus  a  cloak  might  cost  £36  ;  silk  fetched  its 
weight  in  gold ;   purple  wool  £3  5s.  Od,  a  pound,  and  if 


ROMAN  INFLUENCE-SOCIAL  CONDITIONS  37 

double-dyed,  almost  ten  times  as  much.  But  living 
was  cheap.  A  slave  could  be  fitted  out  for  IBs.,  and 
a  citizen  from  £3  to  £6.  This  was  also  the  price  of  an 
ass,  ox,  and  cow  ;  a  horse  fetched  a  little  more  ;  a 
goat  fetched  55.  and  6s.  ;  a  calf  155.  and  under ;  a 
sheep  4iS.  to  16s.  ;  a  lamb  sometimes  as  little  as  2d. 
Corn,  fruit,  wine  and  oil  cost  little  ;  meat  was  only  Id. 
a  lb.  A  small  unfurnished  lodging  could  be  obtained 
for  6d.  a  week  ;  and  the  rate  of  wages  for  unskilled 
labour  was  7J(^.  a  day.  {See  Edersheim,  I.  p.  116,  and 
cf.  p.  129  fE.) 

There  were  few  class  distinctions  amongst  the  Jews, 
and  fewer  than  in  contemporary  Greco-Roman  life. 
In  the  villages,  slaves,  freemen  and  employers  were  the 
usual  grades  ;  and,  in  the  towns,  there  were  also  the 
priestly  families,  the  Rabbis,  the  rulers,  and  the  wealthy. 
Of  the  latter,  who  lived  in  ostentatious  luxury,  Dives  is 
a  type  ;  and  St.  James  passes  severe  strictures  on  them 
as  a  class.  Slavery  was  decreasing,  and  both  Pharisees 
and  Essenes  were  opposed  to  it.  Women  enjoyed  a 
considerable  amount  of  freedom  and  status,  but  were 
always  regarded  as  an  inferior  sex.  "  The  world  cannot 
exist  without  males  and  females,"  said  one  Rabbi,  "  but 
blessed  are  they  whose  children  are  sons,  and  woe  to 
them  whose  children  are  daughters."  Marriage  and 
family  life  were  highly  praised  and  upheld  by  the  Rabbis. 
Among  the  wealthy  it  was  occasionally  the  habit  to 
have  more  than  one  wife  (Jos.,  Ant.,  17.  1.  2),  but  as 
a  rule  few  men  had  more  than  one.  Divorce  was  easy, 
and  this  rendered  polygamy  unnecessary.  Large 
families  were  looked  on  as  a  blessing  and  sign  of  the 


38  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

Divine  favour ;  and  tlie  absence  of  children  was  a 
reproach.  (Lk.  125,  36^  cf.  Gen.  3023,  I.  Sam.  1^, 
Ps.  1139,  Isa.  41.) 

Child-life  played  a  large  part  in  the  thoughts  and 

interests  of  the  nation,  and  great  pains  were  taken  with 

their  training  and  education.     "  By  the  breath  from 

the  mouth  of  school-children  the  world  is  sustained," 

said  one  Rabbi  (Shabb.  119.  b.)  and  it  was  the  prime 

duty  of  the  parents  to  attend  to  the  education  of  their 

children.     (Prov.    is,   41,    620,    131,    30i7,   Sir   30i-i3.) 

Says   Josephus,   "  Our  chief  care  is   to    educate    our 

children  well ;  and  we  think  it  to  be  the  most  necessary 

business  of  our  whole  life,  to  observe  the  laws  that  have 

been  given  us,  and  to  keep  those  rules  of  piety  that 

have  been  delivered  down  to  us."     Men  of  other  nations, 

he  claims  (2.  19),  are  ignorant  of  their  own  laws,  and 

even  the  government  officials  need  assessors  to  instruct 

them  ;  but  Jews  know  their  Law  better  even  than  their 

own  names,  "  because  we  learned  them  immediately  as 

soon  as  ever  we  became  sensible  of  anything,  and  have 

them  as  it  were  engraven  on  our  souls"  (cf.    2.    26). 

"  The  Law  ordains  that  the   very  beginning   of   our 

education  should  be  immediately  directed  to  sobriety. 

It  also  commands  us  to  bring  those  children  up  in 

learning,  and  to  exercise  them  in  the  laws,  and  make 

them  acquainted  with  the  acts  of  their  predecessors, 

in  order  to  their  imitation  of  them,  and  that  they  might 

be  nourished  up  in  the  laws  from  their  infancy,  and 

might  neither  transgress  them,  nor  have  any  pretence 

for  their  ignorance  of  them."    (C.  Apion,  1.  12.) 

The  words  of  Philo  (Ad  Caium,  31)  are  equally 


EOMAN  INFLUENCE— SOCIAL  CONDITIONS  39 

eloquent :  ''  We  esteem  our  laws  as  Divine  revelations, 
and  are  instructed  in  the  knowledge  of  them  from  our 
earliest  youth,  so  that  we  carry  the  image  of  the  com- 
mands in  our  souls.  We  are  taught,  so  to  speak,  from 
our  swaddling  clothes,  by  parents  and  teachers  and 
instructors,  to  recognise  the  one  God  as  our  Father, 
and  the  Maker  of  the  world." 

It  is  evident  at  once  that,  to  the  Jew,  education  and 
religion  were  practically  coterminous.  As  nothing  in 
Hfe  was  devoid  of  its  religious  significance,  so  religion 
covered  all  essentials  in  the  training  of  the  young.  "  The 
fear  of  the  Lord  is  the  beginning  of  wisdom,  and  the 
knowledge  of  the  Holy  One  is  understanding."  (Pro v. 
9i<^.)  The  golden  age  was  to  come,  when  all  the  earth 
should  be  "  full  of  the  knowledge  of  the  Lord,  as  the 
waters  cover  the  sea."  (Isa.  ll^  ;  and  cf.  Jer.  SP*.) 
From  the  tenderest  age  a  boy  bore  his  part  in  the  worship 
of  the  Temple  and  Synagogue.  At  the  eighth  day  he 
was  circumcised  and  received  his  name  with  solemn 
formality  (Lk.  159) ;  later,  he  was  dedicated  to  God 
at  the  hands  of  the  priest  (Lk.  222).  Another  ceremony 
took  place  at  his  weaning.  As  soon  as  he  could  under- 
stand he  would  become  familiar  with  the  family  prayers, 
the  Sabbath  observances,  the  festival  celebrations, 
Purim,  the  Passover,  the  Feast  of  Weeks,  the  Day  of 
Atonement ;  his  boyish  spirits  would  revel  in  the  merry- 
makings and  the  Bohemianism  of  the  Feast  of  Taber- 
nacles ;  and  the  parents  would  explain  the  meaning 
and  significance  of  each  as  they  came  round  (cf.  Exod. 
1226,  138,  14,  Jos.  46) ;  and  even  the  very  young  were 
required  to  attend    the    observances  if    possible   (cf. 


40         THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

Lk.  242).  With  the  arrival  of  speech  he  would  be  taught 
the  Shema  (Deut.  6^-\  lli3-2i,  Num.  153'-ii)  and 
other  simple  texts,  hymns,  psalms,  and  prayers.  (Cf. 
the  home  life  of  Timothy,  2  Tim.  3^^.)  Discipline  was 
severe,  if  certain  passages  are  to  be  taken  as  typical : 
"  He  that  spare th  his  rod  hateth  his  son  ;  but  he  that 
loveth  him  chasteneth  him  diligently  "  (Pro v.  IS^*  ;  cf. 
1918,  2215,  2313,  2915,  i7)  ;  but  it  was  allowed  that  "  a 
rebuke  cntereth  deeper  into  one  that  hath  understanding 
than  an  hundred  stripes  into  a  fool "  (17io). 

At  the  age  of  six  or  thereabouts  he  was  sent  to  school, 
schools  existing  almost  certainly  in  the  time  of  Christ  in 
every  town  and  good-sized  village  ;  later  tradition  said 
that  it  was  unlawful  to  live  out  of  reach  of  a  school 
(Sanh.  17  b),  and  a  city  without  a  school  was  to  be 
excommunicated.  Schools  were  kept  by  regular  teachers 
and  Rabbis,  at  first  probably  in  their  own  houses  (cf. 
Sir.  636 ;  Aboth.  1^),  where  the  pupils  sat  in  a  semi- 
circle at  the  feet  of  their  teachers  (Acts  223  •  jj^^ 
2^6,  1039).  Later,  regular  school-houses  would  come 
to  be  built  (perh.  cf.  Acts  19^),  in  close  connection  with 
the  Synagogues,  the  natural  centre  of  all  the  teaching. 
The  teaching  was  under  the  control  of  the  "  teachers 
of  the  Law  "  (Lk.  51^),  i.e.  members  of  the  great  body 
of  Scribes,  and  delivered  partly  by  them  and  partly  by 
the  Chazzan,  answering  to  our  elementary  school- 
masters. Higher  education  for  a  selected  few  was 
given  in  colleges  called  "  Houses  of  the  Midrash," 
where  deeper  and  more  technical  instruction  in  the  Law 
was  given. 

In  all  cases  the  precious  Law  was  the  medium  of 


ROMAN  INFLUENCE— SOCIAL  CONDITIONS  41 

instruction,  and  the  sole  aim  of  education  was  its  know- 
ledge and  practice — ("  Our  law-giver  included  in  his 
legislation  the  entire  conduct  of  their  lives,  and  brought 
it  so  to  pass  that  those  that  were  made  acquainted  with 
his  laws  did  most  carefully  observe  them,"  Jos.,  C. 
Apion,  2.  IG)  ;  all  mental  training  and  ability  were  to 
come  incidentally  with  it.  Up  to  the  age  of  ten  the  Old 
Testament  was  the  text-book  (cf.  Edersheim,  I.  p.  232)  ; 
and  from  ten  to  fifteen  the  Mishnah  or  traditional  Law. 
The  higher  courses  of  study  after  this  were  for  only  those 
who  showed  proper  aptitude.  In  the  books  of  Proverbs, 
Sirach,  and  the  "  Sayings  of  the  Fathers "  (Pirke 
Aboth)  we  have  interesting  manuals  of  education, 
describing  its  aims  and  its  methods.  Every  boy  was 
also  taught  a  trade — Saul  of  Tarsus  had  learned  to  weave 
the  coarse  cilicimn  out  of  which  tents  were  made 
(Acts  18^)  ;  and  there  were  bodies  approaching  the 
nature  of  trades-unions  or  guilds,  which  would  interest 
themselves  in  this. 

Much  of  the  teaching  was  by  heart,  and  mnemonic 
devices  were  employed  to  facilitate  this,  such  as  the 
acrostic  (cf.  Psalms  9,  10,  25,  34,  37,  111,  112,  119,  145  ; 
Lam.  1-4;  Prov.  31io-3i;  Sir.  51^3-30)^  and  the 
numerical  proverb  (Prov.  30 ^^  ff.,  Aboth,  5). 

The  education  of  girls  was  on  similar  lines,  but 
learning  for  girls  was  not  encouraged.  They  must 
certainly  be  familiar  with  the  elements  of  the  Law  and 
worship,  it  was  held,  but  not  with  the  deeper  knowledge 
or  secular  subjects.  The  ideal  for  them  was  naturally 
and  properly  domestic  (cf.  Prov.  31  ^^  ff.),  of  which 
Martha  is  the  type.     (Cf.  Westcott  on  Jn.  42?.) 


42         THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

Jewish  upbringing  may  be  stigmatised  as  narrow  ; 
but  at  least  it  left  its  pupils  familiar  mth  a  remarkable 
literature  and  with  a  knowledge  of  their  nation's  history  ; 
and  what  was  really  important,  the  moral  and  religious 
element  was  not  separated  from  the  secular  instruction, 
but  insisted  on  as  both  the  source  and  aim  of  education, 
so  that  the  pupils  were  both  saved  from  the  conceit  of 
mere  knowledge  and  mental  facility,  and  received  in 
its  place  a  sense  of  the  Divine  providence  controlling 
human  affairs,  with  a  sense  of  vocation  and  responsi- 
bility. 

Thus  the  entire  atmosphere  of  Jewish  life  was 
religious,  and  the  Scribes  occupied  themselves  with 
applying  the  Law  to  all  the  possible  contingencies  of 
everj^day  life.  But  it  is  clear  that  the  effect  on  the 
habits  and  character  of  the  population  was  not  as  great 
as  might  have  been  expected.  Not  many  saints  were 
produced,  and  the  sense  of  the  Divine  providence  and 
vocation  did  certainly  react  and  produce  in  the  nation 
as  a  whole  an  intense  contempt  for  other  peoples,  and  an 
arrogant  pride  in  their  own  position  as  God's  Chosen. 
Experience  of  human  nature  in  our  day  shows  that  of 
the  many  who  are  called  it  is  only  the  few  whose  hearts 
are  awakened  and  choose  to  respond  to  the  call. 
Religion  with  us  is  so  largely  a  veneer,  a  habit ;  it  was 
not  less  so  with  the  Jew.  Arguing  from  the  fact  of  his 
being  of  the  Chosen  People,  of  the  seed  of  Abraham,  he 
concluded  that  he  had  only  to  wait  and  walk  into 
his  inheritance  in  the  kingdom  ;  it  did  not  depend  much 
upon  big  own  behaviour,  so  long  as  he  did  what  he  was 


ROMAN  INFLUENCE— SOCIAL  CONDITIONS  43 

told,  and  kept  the  observances  prescribed  by  the  Law. 
His  thoughts  seldom  went  beyond  this  world.  Its 
activities  and  needs  were  sufficient  to  occupy  him,  and 
its  pleasures  sufficient  attraction  ;  his  hope  was  little 
more  than  a  rabid  nationalism,  and  the  scene  of  the 
kingdom  when  it  should  come  was  Jerusalem,  restored 
to  his  nation,  the  rightful  owners,  and  the  triumphant 
objects  of  the  world's  deferential  homage  and  tribute. 

Of  religion  in  the  true  sense  there  was  little,  if  of 
religious  observance  there  was  much.  If  the  Pharisees, 
the  professed  leaders  of  the  nation's  conscience,  could 
deserve  so  scathing  and  unsparing  a  condemnation  as 
that  recorded  in  Mt.  23,  we  should  not  expect  great 
devotion  and  spirituality  from  their  followers.  Religion 
among  the  Jews,  taken  as  a  ivhole,  was  a  really  pathetic 
thing,  the  straining  at  gnats  and  the  swallowing  of 
camels.  The  highest  teaching  of  the  Rabbis  was  very 
high,  and  out  of  it  was  born  and  developed  Christianity  ; 
but  the  things  that  mattered,  apparently,  were  the 
tithing  of  mint  and  anise  and  cummin,  and  petty  technical 
regulations.  ^Vherever  insistence  is  made  on  the 
outside  of  religion,  and  the  letter  of  the  Law  made  im- 
portant, as  in  Romanism  and  its  imitators,  there  is 
always  the  danger  of  stiffing  the  spirit  and  perverting 
the  energies,  the  risk  of  exhibitions  of  moral  miscon- 
ceptions, which  would  be  ludicrous  were  they  not  pitiful, 
and  even  tragic. 

Of  this  Judaism  was  an  extreme  example.  They 
might  swear  by  the  Temple,  or  the  Altar ;  but  they 
might  not  swear  by  the  gold  of  the  Temple  nor  the  gift 
on  the  Altar.    Money  might  be  formally  dedicated  to 


44  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

God's  service  as  Corban,  so  as  to  veto  a  parent's 
claim  on  it  for  maintenance,  and  then  taken  and  used 
by  the  owner  as  if  nothing  had  happened.  A  tailor 
was  enjoined  to  look  carefully  and  remove  all  needles 
from  his  coat  on  a  Friday,  lest  he  should  break  the  Law 
by  "  bearing  a  burden  on  the  Sabbath  day."  It  was 
this  over-punctiHous  respect  for  the  Sabbath  that 
helped  the  taking  of  Jerusalem  by  Pompey  (cf.  p.  17). 
The  Jews  refused  to  fight  on  the  Sabbaths,  so  that  the 
Romans  used  these  days  to  perfect  their  siege-works 
unmolested  (Jos.,  Ant.,  14.  4.  2) ;  an  incident  which 
may  have  been  in  our  Lord's  mind  when  He  warned 
them  to  pray  that  their  flight  from  Jerusalem  in  the 
next  siege  be  not  "  on  the  Sabbath."  (Mt.  2420 ;  of. 
the  days  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  when  many  Jews  had 
allowed  themselves  to  be  slaughtered,  because  they  would 
not  even  defend  themselves  on  the  Sabbath  :  Jos.,  Ant., 
12.  6.  2.)  A  village  might  call  itself  a  town,  when 
it  could  prove  that  ten  men  regularly  attended  the 
Synagogue  service,  and  there  were  usually  ten  men 
kept  in  fee  in  order  to  preserve  the  quahfication.  The 
population  generally  was  indifferent  to  the  appeal  of 
religion,  or  anything  save  pohtical  excitement ;  they 
were  hke  children  in  the  market-place,  who  could  be 
induced  to  join  in  none  of  their  playmates'  games. 
(Mt.  1116 .  cf.  Muirhead,  pp.  57  ff,  86  ff.) 


CHAPTER  III 


THE    MESSIANIC   HOPE 


No  estimate  of  Judaism  is  complete  without  some 
reference,  at  tlie  least,  to  the  Messianic  hope  ;  indeed, 
it  was  this  from  which  Judaism  drew  its  chief  inspiration 
and  power,  and  coloured  the  whole  of  its  religious  belief 
and  practice.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  features 
of  the  Old  Testament  is  its  persistent  faith  and  hope  ; 
the  eyes  of  writers,  even  in  the  darkest  days,  are  ever 
fixed  on  the  future,  in  rapt  and  confident  expectation  ; 
the  Golden  Age  for  them  is  yet  to  come,  in  contrast  to 
the  regrets  of  heathen  writers.  No  Jew  could  ever 
have  written  Horace's  dismal  lines  : 

Aetas  parentum  pejor  avis  tulit 
Nos  nequiores,  mox  daturos 
Progeniem  vitiosiorem. 

(Od.  3.  6.  40.) 

The  Fourth  Eclogue  of  Virgil  is  much  more  in  their 
spirit.  And  this  note  of  hopefulness  is  sounded  at  the 
very  outset  of  the  Old  Testament  after  the  unhappy 
account  of  the  misuse  by  Adam  and  Eve  of  their 
opportunities,  where  it  is  promised  to  Eve's  seed  that 
it  shall  bruise  the  serpent's  head.     (Gen.  3^^.) 

Not  long  after  this  appears  the  note  of  selection  or 


4G         THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

choice,  with  its  attendant  promises.  At  the  time  of 
the  Flood,  Noah  is  preserved  because  of  his  faithfulness 
to  God,  when  all  else  are  destroyed  for  their  wickedness  ; 
and  on  the  subsiding  of  the  waters  God  makes  a  covenant 
with  him,  promising  the  due  succession  of  seedtime  and 
harvest,  and  that  no  similar  overwhelming  should  again 
take  place.  (Gen.  68,  822,  912.)  With  Abraham  the 
promises  take  a  wider  connotation.  In  him  and  his 
seed  shall  all  the  families  of  the  earth  be  blessed,  and 
he  is  to  be  "the  father  of  a  multitude  of  nations." 
(123,  174,  cf.  15^  1810,  2215.)  Abraham's  history  is 
a  parable  of  faith,  wdth  his  journeys  out  of  his  father's 
country  and  from  place  to  place,  and  his  gift  of  a  son  in 
his  old  age.  The  promises  are  continued  to  Isaac  (262), 
and  to  Jacob  (28i3,  46^) ;  the  book  ends  with  the 
mysterious  foretelling  of  "  Shiloh  "  (49 1^,  whatever  be 
the  text  and  the  rendering) ;  and  the  principle  of  faith 
is  upheld  again  in  the  stories  of  Jacob  and  Joseph. 

During  the  Exodus,  faith  and  hope  are  still  upheld, 
in  the  teaching  of  Moses,  and  Joshua,  and  Balaam,  and 
in  the  experiences  of  the  nation ;  and  we  now  get  an 
appreciation  of  the  sources  of  these  doctrines,  i.e.  the 
conception  of  Jehovah  as  a  Father  to  His  people,  and 
as  a  loving  God,  and  the  covenant-relation  existing 
between  Him  and  Israel.  Gradually  is  the  hope  reahsed 
in  the  evolution  of  a  nation  of  roughly  civilised  people 
out  of  a  semi-barbaric  nomad  tribe  ;  Jehovah's  people 
become,  on  a  small  scale,  a  world-power.  The  Canaanites, 
if  not  driven  out  or  destroyed,  are  subdued  ;  Philistines, 
Edomites,  Moabites,  Amorites,  Ammonites,  Amalekites, 
held  in  check ;   after  a  period  of  government  by  petty 


THE  MESSIANIC  HOPE  47 

rulers  or  judges  and  prophets,  a  monarchy  is  established  ; 
pretenders  are  removed ;  and  the  throne  of  David 
becomes  an  accomplished  fact,  and  his  sway  and 
beneficent  rule  extend  from  Tiphsah  and  the  River 
Euphrates  to  Gaza  and  the  "  border  of  Egypt." 

His  throne  is  established  in  the  person  of  Solomon 
his  son;  wealth  and  prosperity  are  increased;  ''every 
man  dwells  under  his  vine  and  under  his  fig-tree  "  ; 
"  Judah  and  Israel  are  many,  as  sand  which  is  by  the 
sea  in  multitude,  eating  and  drinking  and  maldng 
merry  "  ;  silver  is  made  like  stones,  and  is  nothing 
accounted  of,  and  cedar  is  as  common  as  the  worthless 
sycamore.     (1  Kings  420-25,  1027.) 

But  this  was  not  to  last ;  God  had  ''  provided  some 
better  thing  "  for  them  and  for  the  world  ;  and  Israel 
had  to  be  weaned  from  her  limited  and  selfish  and 
material  hopes,  to  something  wider  and  nobler  and 
higher.  This  proved  to  be  the  work  of  centuries,  and 
during  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  fortunes  of  the  Chosen 
People,  we  trace  the  changes  and  development  of  their 
conception  of  this  hope,  and  the  forms  under  which  it 
was  represented. 

It  was  not  long  before  they  were  compelled  to  recall 
the  promises  made  to  their  forefathers,  and  to  comfort 
themselves  under  present  disappointment  with  renewed 
and  re-emphasised  hopes  of  the  future.  Rehoboam, 
Solomon's  son,  "  ample  in  foolishness,  and  lacking  in 
understanding,  by  his  counsel  made  the  people  revolt  " 
(Sir.  4723) ;  and  from  this  time  the  nation  is  divided, 
and  frequently  at  war. 


48         THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

Moreover,  the  ninth  century  saw  the  rise  of  the 
Syrian  power  ;  and  Kings  describes  the  inroads  made 
upon  both  Judah  and  Israel ;  Assyria  is  a  still  greater 
power,  and  both  Syria  and  Judaea  feel  her  might.  The 
people  of  Jehovah  are  not  always  conquerors,  their 
final  submission  is  only  delayed  by  bribes  taken  from 
the  Temple  and  Royal  Treasury  and  transferred  to 
foreign  cofiers.  In  750  many  inhabitants  of  the  northern 
Idngdom  are  deported  (2  Ejngs  15^ 9),  in  722  Samaria  is 
taken,  and  the  kingdom  of  Judah  alone  remains.  Judah 
is  now  a  buffer  state  between  Assyria  (later  Babylon), 
and  Egypt ;  it  eventually  falls  a  prey  to  Babylon  in 
588.  Well  might  the  people  say,  "  Where  are  the 
ancient  promises  ?  " 

And  in  answer  to  this  question  the  prophets  had 
much  to  say.  They  upheld  the  reality  and  the  sureness 
of  the  promises  ;  their  faith  and  their  hope  failed  not ; 
and  while  they  still  looked  for  a  material  blessedness, 
they  realised  and  insisted  that  moral  and  even  spiritual 
things  existed  ;  and  they  asserted  that  Israel's  failure 
to  realise  its  material  hope  was  due  to  its  failure  to 
recognise  its  moral  and  spiritual  responsibilities. 

But  at  first  it  was  a  return  of  the  "  good  old  days  " 
of  David  and  Solomon  that  they  promised,  and  after 
repentance  and  purification  Israel  was  to  be  established 
as  of  old.  (Amos  9^1  (c.  750) ;  Zeph.  3^2  (630).)  This 
is  the  prevailing  conception  down  to  the  time  of  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem,  when  all  hope  of  an  earthly 
happiness  seemed  thereby  utterly  and  finally  taken 
away. 

During  the  seventy  years*  exile  a  wonderful  process  of 


THE  MESSIANIC  HOPE  49 

purification  and  spiritualising  went  on.  All  their  power 
was  gone  ;  their  land  inhabited  by  foreigners  ;  Jerusalem 
and  the  Temple  burnt  and  destroyed ;  they  themselves 
practically  in  the  same  position  as  their  forefathers  in 
Egypt.  Suffering  challenged  their  faith  and  hope,  and 
their  faith  and  hope  stubbornly  responded  and  refused 
to  be  broken ;  but  the  higher  spirits  among  them 
recognised  the  futility  and  the  powerlessness  of  earthly 
power ;  they  saw  that  God  worked  with  and  in  other 
nations  besides  themselves,  and  that  these,  too,  had  a 
claim  to  God's  care  and  promises  ;  they  learned  how 
another  nation  had  sought  after  God  and  had  in  a 
measure  found  Him.  Hence  they  learnt  the  value  of 
spiritual  blessings,  truth,  righteousness,  and  the  know- 
ledge of  God  ;  their  idea  of  salvation  became  less  material, 
more  catholic.  Their  hope  varied  in  its  character  with 
the  varying  fortunes  of  the  nation ;  but  although  at 
times  it  was  largely  identified  with  national  independence 
and  ascendancy,  and  with  earthly  prosperity,  especially 
in  the  minds  of  the  less  educated,  in  the  eyes  of  its  better 
representatives  it  came  more  and  more  to  bear  an 
ethical  and  unearthly  character. 

The  story  of  the  Chosen  People  after  the  exile  is  not 
of  the  cheeriest.  Cyrus  the  Persian  conquers  Babylon 
and  the  Persian  Empire  takes  the  leading  place  in 
history,  lasting  for  some  200  years,  i.e.  until  about  333, 
when  it  gives  way  to  Alexander  the  Great  and  the  Greek 
power.  Cyrus  gave  leave  to  the  Jews  to  return  and 
rebuild  Jerusalem,  and  some  42,000  took  advantage  of 
it,  including  one-sixth  of  the  priests,   but  few  with 

D 


50  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

wealth  or  property,  and  tlie  majority  of  the  tribe  of 
Judah.  (Fairweather,  E.  A.,  p.  34.)  Zerubbabel  was 
their  leader.  From  the  first  the  work  was  hindered  by  the 
Samaritans,  who  proposed  an  alliance  and  were  refused  ; 
the  difficulties  were  great,  discouragements  many ;  the 
settlers  lost  heart,  and  grew  apathetic  and  selfish,  and 
it  needed  the  prophets  Haggai  and  Zechariah  to  arouse 
them  to  the  completion  of  the  Temple  and  the  repairing 
of  the  city.  They  were  but  few,  and  were  soon  forgotten 
by  those  they  had  left  behind. 

Eighty  years  later,  458,  laxity  had  crept  in,  and 
Ezra  the  Scribe  arose  to  revive  the  nation's  hopes.  He 
induced  some  7000  more  to  return  with  him  from 
Babylon  to  Jerusalem,  and  was  encouraged  and  helped 
by  the  Persian  King,  Artaxerxes.  (Fairweather,  E.  A., 
p.  64.)  He  reformed  the  life  of  the  little  community, 
but  could  not  re-fortify  and  restore  the  city.  This  fell 
to  the  task  of  Nehemiah,  fourteen  years  later,  though 
with  great  difficulties,  and  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  between 
them  left  the  Jews  more  or  less  organised  and  settled, 
their  rulers  being  no  longer  kings,  but  high  priests. 

Roughly  another  century  passes,  and  Alexander  the 
Great  has  conquered  all  the  East,  and  at  his  death 
Ptolemy  Lagi  has  Egypt,  and  Antiochus  Syria,  Seleueus 
Babylon.  Judaea  again  becomes  the  buffer  state  and 
the  cock-pit  of  the  East.  These  three  rulers  war  and 
intrigue  against  each  other  ;  eventually  Judaea  passes 
under  the  sway  of  Egypt  and  the  Ptolemies,  and  enjoys 
a  century  of  comparative  peace  and  prosperity.  At 
its  end,  in  198,  Antiochus  III.  defeats  Ptolemy  Philo- 
pator  and  so  Palestine  passes  to  the  kingdom  of  Syria. 


THE  MESSIANIC  HOPE  51 

The  Jews  are  drawn  of  necessity  into  politics,  their  own 
fortunes  depending  on  the  power  and  goodwill  of  their 
neighbours. 

Antiochus  IV.,*  the  next  king,  surnamed  Epiphanes, 
alluded  to  in  Daniel  ll^i  {"  vile  person  "),  tries  to  impose 
Greek  religion  on  the  Jews  and  is  resisted.  He  desecrates 
the  Temple,  and  persecutes  the  Jews,  who  are  thus 
driven  into  open  rebellion  (170).  Some  40,000  are 
massacred,  and  as  many  sold  into  slavery ;  two  years 
later  Jerusalem  is  plundered  and  burnt,  with  more 
massacres  and  slavery ;  a  heathen  sacrifice  is  offered 
on  an  idol-altar  erected  over  the  great  altar  (''the 
abomination  of  desolation  ")  and  the  Temple  dedicated 
to  Zeus. 

A  national  hero  arises,  Judas  Maccabaeus,  in  166, 
and  he  successfully  resists  the  Syrian  power,  and  secures 
the  promise  of  religious  freedom.  Under  his  two 
brothers  the  Jews  regain  their  independence. 

In  135  John  Hyrcanus,  nephew  of  Judas  Maccabaeus. 
was  compelled  to  give  way  to  Antiochus  VII.,  but  on  the 
latter's  death  in  128,  he  was  able,  owing  to  internal  dis- 
sensions in  Syrian  affairs,  to  reassert  his  power,  and  for 
thirty  years  the  Jews  prospered.  But  they  now  began 
to  suffer  from  internal  factions.  Jewish  hopes  had  become 
so  largely  political  and  material,  that  the  more  religious- 
minded  of  the  people  protested  ;  and  there  arose  the  two 
parties  in  the  state,  familiar  to  us  as  Pharisees  and 
Sadducees,  the  former  working  for  the  religious  ideal, 
the  latter  for  the  political.  Civil  war  broke  out  in  94 
and  lasted  six  years,  in  the  reign  of  Alexander  Jannaeus, 

♦  Cf.  Hibbert  Journal,  July,  1913,  p.  819. 


52         THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

a  man  of  blood  although  High  Priest,  and  for  a  generation 
or  more  disturbances  and  faction  predominated. 

The  power  of  Rome  had  now  for  some  time  been  in 
the  ascendant  (in  190  Antiochus  III.  had  suffered 
defeat  at  their  hands) :  in  63  Pompey  took  the  city  after 
a  severe  siege,  and  outraged  the  feelings  of  the  Jews  by 
entering  the  Holy  of  Holies.  In  Rome  there  was  no 
escape,  yet  more  than  one  effort  was  made  to  regain 
independence,  and  the  last  half-century  before  the 
Christian  Era  continued  the  tale  of  poHtical  faction, 
and  intrigue,  with  periodical  outburst  and  bloodshed. 
(Lk.  131 ;  Acts  536  g. ;  Savage,  "  Gospel  of  the  Kingdom," 
p.  6.) 

This  outline  of  Jewish  history  has  been  necessary  to 
show  the  background  of  the  nation's  life,  and  the 
atmosphere  in  which  its  ideals  and  hopes  were  developed. 
It  will  help  to  explain  the  various  forms  which  those 
hopes  took,  and  the  figures  under  which  it  was  repre- 
sented. We  shall  see,  as  we  discuss  them  one  by  one, 
how  the  ideas  were  each  fulfilled,  either  literally  or 
spiritually,  in  the  Person  and  teaching  of  Jesus  of 
Nazareth,  and  developed  into  the  larger  hope  which  we 
call  Christian.  It  is  remarkable  how  persistently  this 
hope  flourished,  and  refused  to  be  quenched  through 
all  the  discouragements  and  afflictions  that  were  laid 
upon  the  Jewish  people  ;  if  their  eyes  looked  back  to 
the  brilliant  episodes  of  the  past,  it  was  only  in  order  to 
encourage  their  hopes  of  a  still  more  brilliant  future. 

The  first  point  to  notice  is  the  notion  that  God 
Himself  will  come  to  the  aid  of  His  people. 

Thus  :  Ps.  98^  "  He  cometh  to  judge  the  earth/' 


THE  MESSIANIC  HOPE  53 

Ps.  46^0,  "  I  will  be  exalted  among  the  nations  ;  I 
will  be  exalted  in  the  earth.  The  Lord  of  Hosts  is  with 
us,  the  God  of  Jacob  is  our  refuge." 

Zeph.  317  (630),  "  Jehovah  thy  God  in  the  midst  of 
thee,  a  mighty  one  who  will  save." 

Isa.  354  (post-Ex.),  "  Behold  !  your  God  .  .  .  He  will 
come  and  save  you." 

Isa.  4010,  "  Tiie  Lord  God  will  come  as  a  mighty 
one."  Cf.  5212;  43^1  and  pass.  "  Immanuel,"  i.e. 
"  God  with  us." 

Ezek.  34^^,  "  I  myself,  even  I,  will  search  for  My 
sheep  and  will  seek  them  out." 

Zech.  149  (post-Ex.),  *'  Jehovah  shall  be  king  over 
all  the  earth."     (Oehler,  II.  p.  406.) 

Zech.  210  (520),  "  I  come,  and  I  will  dwell  in  the 
midst  of  thee." 

Test.  Zeb.  S^,  "  There  shall  arise  unto  you  Jehovah 
Himself." 

Test.  Simeon  6-^,  "  Jehovah  God  shall  appear  on 
earth,  and  save  the  sons  of  men."     (137-107  B.C.) 

Enoch  253,  "  God  .  .  .  shall  come  to  visit  the  earth 
with  goodness." 

But  this  idea  possibly  derogated  too  much  from  the 
holiness  of  Jehovah,  especially  when  contrasted  with  the 
sinfulness  of  Israel.  The  growing  sense  of  sin  and  of 
powerlessness,  also,  encouraged  the  idea  of  a  mediator, 
i.e.  some  one  who  would  by  his  superior  power  free  the 
oppressed,  and  be  a  less  terrible  person  in  his  dealings 
than  Jehovah  Himself. 

Thus  we  find  Jehovah  sends  another,  an  important 
and  far-reaching  idea  :  Micah  5^,  "  Out  of  thee  are  come 


54:  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

forth  unto  Me  that  is  to  be  a  ruler  in  Israel ;  whose 
goings  forth  are  from  of  old,  from  everlasting.  ...  He 
shall  .  .  .  feed  His  flock  in  the  strength  of  Jehovah,  in 
the  majesty  of  the  name  of  Jehovah  His  God ;  ...  He 
shall  be  great  unto  the  ends  of  the  earth. " 

Most  beautiful  is  the  conception  of  Isa.  11 :  "  There 
shall  come  forth  a  shoot  out  of  the  stock  of  Jesse,  and  a 
branch  out  of  his  roots  shall  bear  fruit :  and  the  Spirit 
of  Jehovah  shall  rest  upon  him,  the  spirit  of  wisdom  and 
understanding,  the  spirit  of  counsel  and  might,  the 
spirit  of  knowledge  and  of  the  fear  of  Jehovah  ;  and  his 
dehght  shall  be  in  the  fear  of  Jehovah  ;  and  he  shall  not 
judge  after  the  sight  of  his  eyes,  neither  decide  after  the 
hearing  of  his  ears  :  but  with  righteousness  shall  he 
judge  the  poor,  and  decide  with  equity  for  the  meek  of 
the  earth  :  and  he  shall  smite  the  oppressor  with  the 
rod  of  his  mouth,  and  with  the  breath  of  his  lips  shall 
he  slay  the  wicked." 

Ezek.  342'"^,  24^  <«  j  ^Ij  s^^  ^p  q^q  shepherd  over  them, 
and  he  shall  feed  them,  even  My  servant  David ;  he 
shall  feed  them,  and  he  shall  be  their  shepherd.  And  I 
the  Lord  will  be  their  God,  and  My  servant  David  prince 
among  them." 

Mai.  3^  (c.  400,  Nehemiah),  "  I  send  My  messenger.' - 
Cf.  "  Angel  of  Jehovah  "  elsewhere  in  Old  Testament. 

Ps.  2 6,',  "I  have  set  My  king  upon  My  holy  hill  of 
Zion.    Thou  art  My  Son,  this  day  have  I  begotten  Thee." 

Ps.  110  describes  the  coming  of  a  Priest-King  who 
shall  deliver  His  people.     (Oehler,  II.  p.  407.) 

It  is  clear  from  this  that  the  hope  is  to  be  realised 


THE  MESSIANIC  HOPE  55 

not  by  a  mere  general  ordering  or  re-ordering  of  the 
nation's  life,  but  tbrough  the  personal  intervention  of 
Jehovah,  or  His  representative.  It  is  remarkable  that 
the  Apocrypha  has  no  reference  to  a  personal  Messiah, 
but  the  "  Apocryphal  "  literature  has  many. 

It  would  take  us  too  long  to  trace  the  growth  of 
this  idea,  especially  in  the  difficult  literature  of  the 
period  between  the  two  Testaments,  of  which  literature 
some  account  will  be  given  later  ;  still  less  can  passages 
be  fully  quoted  in  support  of  the  description  given. 
We  have  space  only  to  describe  and  illustrate  the  chief 
forms.  Many  will  recur  to  the  mind  from  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  the  student  of  the  New  Testament  will 
recognise  how  the  ideas  are  all  comprehended  in  the 
Person  of  Jesus  Christ.  It  will,  of  course,  be  understood 
that  in  no  single  passage  is  found  the  total  conception  of 
the  Messiah,  to  use  the  usual  title  ;  it  is  presented  by 
different  writers  and  different  ages  in  each  of  its  varying 
aspects.  The  interesting  part  is  that  all  and  each  are 
found  in  Jesus  Christ. 

The  leading  figure  under  which  He  is  represented 
is  that  of  a  King,  the  most  obvious,  and  to  a  people  with 
such  a  national  spirit  as  the  Jews,  the  most  popular, 
and  therefore  again  the  most  permanent.  We  have 
seen  it  illustrated  by  Micah  and  Isaiah  ;  it  colours, 
partially  at  all  events,  Pss.  45  and  72  ;  Zechariah  bids 
Jerusalem  welcome  her  King,  riding  upon  an  ass,  the 
symbol  of  humility  and  peace  ;  in  Daniel  His  kingdom 
is  from  everlasting  and  not  to  be  destroyed.  The  Targum 
of  Onkelos  explains  Gen.  49^0  (Shiloh)  and  Num.  24^7 


56  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

(Balaam)  as  of  a  King  to  come  ;  and  other  Targums  on 
other  passages  uphold  the  idea.  The  Sibylline  Oracles 
(Alexandria,  c.  140  B.C.),  speak  of  a  king  sent  by  God  from 
the  sunrise.  (Sib.  3.  652  ;  Mic.  52  ;  Isa.  9  ;  11 ;  32  ; 
Zech.  99;  Jer.  23^;  Dan.  7^3;  Ps.  45;  72;  Test. 
Levi  814  ;  Test.  Reub.  G^i,  12  ;  Ps.  Sol.  1736  ;  Westcott, 
124  ft.  ;  Hastings,  i.  p.  748  b.) 

This  King  is  to  be  of  the  seed  of  David,  and  to  sit 
upon  David's  throne,  in  accordance  with  the  promise  of 
2  Sam.  7 16,  "  Thine  house  and  thy  kingdom  shall  be 
made  sure  for  ever  before  thee  ;  thy  throne  shall  be 
established  for  ever  "  (cf.  Ps.  891^  ff.).  Thus  Jeremiah 
says  that  "  a  branch  of  righteousness  is  to  grow  up  unto 
David,"  and  Ezekiel  that  Jehovah's  shepherd  will  be 
"  His  servant  David."  Isa.  9  assigns  "  the  throne  of 
David  "  to  the  Messiah.  Ps.  Sol.  (b.c.  50)  appeal  to  God 
to  "  raise  up  unto  them  their  king,  the  son  of  David." 
Cf.  the  two  bhnd  men  who  hailed  our  Lord  as  "  Son  of 
David "  (Mt.  92"^),  and  our  Lord's  question  to  the 
Pharisees  (Mt.  22^1).  (Jer.  33i5  ;  Ezek.  3423  ;  Ps.  Sol. 
1722,  5  ;  Sir.  4711 ;  4  Ezr.  1232  ;  Isa.  11^,  10 ;  Mt.  1223, 
2030,  1522^  219,  15  ;  Savage,  "  Gospel  of  the  Kingdom," 
p.  11 ;  Westcott,  p.  125.) 

He  comes  from  the  tribe  of  Judah  (David's  tribe). 
(Gen.  4910  ;  Jub.  3118  ff.  ;  Test.  Jud.  24^  ;  T.  Naph.  4^  ; 
T.  Levi  811 ;  Mic.  52  ;  Lk.  333  ;  Heb.  7i4  ;  Rev.  b'^.) 

In  the  Test,  originally  he  comes  from  Levi,  i.e.  he 
is  a  priest  first ;  but  after  the  breach  with  Hyrcanus, 
and  after  thirty  or  forty  years'  popularity,  the  Judah 
tradition  reappears.  (Test.  Reub.  6'' ;  T.  Lev.  8^  ;  18 ; 
T.  Jud.  241 ;  T.  Dan.  510  ;  T.  Jos.  19^) 


THE  MESSIANIC  HOPE  57 

Clearly  his  first  work  is  that  of  deliverance,  he  is  the 
champion  and  Saviour  of  his  people,  an  idea  found  in 
many  other  nations  and  peoples  (cf.  Oesterley,  "  Messianic 
Idea/'  ch.  ix.).  Isa.  9  calls  him  ''  the  mighty  God," 
and  (11)  describes  how  he  will  smite  the  oppressor  and 
slay  the  wicked  (cf.  63i^).  Ps.  Sol.  172*  says  :  "  Gird 
him  with  strength  that  he  may  shatter  unrighteous 
rulers,  and  that  he  may  purge  Jerusalem  from  nations 
that  trample  her  down  to  destruction.  (4  Ezra  12^1, 
1325  .  2  Bar.  402,  72  ;  Ps.  HO  ;  Test.  Eeub.  612  ;  Test. 
Levi  1812  ;  Test.  Dan  510,  ^ ;  Num.  24i7 ;  Josh.  5i4, 
a  warrior  ;  Lk.  2^8,  242i.) 

Correspondingly  he  will  be  Judge,  to  sentence  the 
enemies  of  Israel  and  vindicate  his  people  ;  but  also 
to  punish  the  wicked  and  uphold  the  righteous,  a  moral 
distinction  taking  the  place  of  a  national.  He  will 
"  execute  judgment  and  righteousness  in  the  land " 
(Jer.  3315).  "  He  shall  not  judge  after  the  sight  of  his 
eyes,  neither  decide  after  the  hearing  of  his  ears  ;  but 
with  righteousness  shall  he  judge  the  poor,  and  decide 
with  equity  for  the  meek  of  the  earth."  (Isa.  11^,  ^,) 
4  Ezr.  13^^,  "  He  shall  reprove  the  nations  that  are 
come  for  their  ungodliness  .  .  .  and  shall  reproach 
them  to  their  face  with  their  evil  thoughts." 

Ps.  Sol.  1729,  "  He  shall  judge  peoples  and  nations 
in  the  wisdom  of  his  righteousness."  (2  Bar.  39,  40,  72, 
73  ;  4  Ezr.  12^2  ;  Enoch  37-70  ;  Ps.  (frequent  reference 
to  judgment  by  Jehovah).  Test.  Levi  18 ;  Dan.  7^  ; 
For  retribution  in  Old  Testament :  Gen.  1823  ;  Exod. 
3233  ;  Num.  1622  ;  Dt.  7^0,  24i6  ;  Ezek. ;  Job  ;  Eccles  ; 
Dan.  527.) 


58  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

He  is  also  figured  as  a  Shepherd.  (Cf.  above,  Mic.  5*  ; 
Ezek.  3423,  and  Isa.  m\  "Jehovah  shall  feed  His 
flock  hke  a  shepherd,"  etc.  Zech.  IV^  ;  Ps.  Sol.  17^^ ; 
Westcott,  p.  125.) 

Another  familiar  role  is  that  of  Priest.  See,  espe- 
cially, Ps.  110,  "  A  priest  for  ever  after  the  order  of 
Melchisedec."  Zech.  6^3,  "  He  shall  be  a  priest  upon 
his  throne."  Test.  Levi  18^,  "  Jehovah  shall  raise  up  a 
new  priest."  Test.  Levi  81^.  This  conception  was 
naturally  encouraged  by  the  Maccabean  "  priest-kings." 
(Cf.  esp.  Zech.  6i3.) 

Also  Prophet.  Deut.  18^5  (not  Messianic  originally). 
1  Mace.  1441,  "until  a  faithful  prophet  should  arise." 
Test.  Levi  S^^,  "  His  presence  is  beloved,  as  a  prophet  of 
the  Most  High."  Isa.  11.  (See  Oesterley,  "  Messianic 
Idea,"  p.  232.)    Ju.  6i4,  3i  ff.,  425^  121 ;  Acts  322,  73?. 

The  Messiah  is  called  Jehovah's  Servant,  especially 
in  such  leading  passages  as  Isa.  42  ;  52^3  ff. ;  the 
thought  is  naturally  developed  in  the  Targums  on  such 
passages ;  but  in  the  literature  of  the  intervening 
period  it  is  not  common ;  the  thought  of  a  hero  and 
leader,  rather  than  a  subordinate  person,  being  naturally 
more  popular  and  more  suggested  by  the  history  of  the 
times.  (Isa.  42  ;  43io  ;  52i3,  53"  ;  Zech.  38  ;  Ac.  427, 
30  ;  313,  26  ;  AYestcott,  p.  125.) 

Another  familiar  title  is  that  of  The  Chosen  One, 
1  Enoch  453,  ^,  "  My  chosen  one  shall  sit  on  the  throne 
of  glory  :  .  .  .  cause  my  chosen  one  to  dwell  among 
them."  (Especially  Enoch  40^  ;  492,  ^  ;  51^,  13  ;  52^,  9  ; 
554  ;  615,  8^  10  ;  G21 ;  53^.  Cf.  Isa.  42^,  "  My  servant, 
my  chosen.'!    Lk.  935  •  2335.) 


THE  MESSIANIC  HOPE  59 

The  title  Messiah  =  Anointed  =  Christ,  and  the  verb 
"  anoint "  is  used  originally  of  making  priests  and 
prophets  and  kings  ;  as  a  substantive,  only  of  kings  ; 
e.g.  "  The  Lord's  anointed."  The  idea  is  the  conveying 
of  Divine  powers  and  attributes ;  fat,  from  which 
unguents  were  made,  was  always  a  specially  holy  part 
of  the  sacrifice,  as  was  the  blood  ;  both  were  believed 
to  be  consumed  by  the  god  ;  hence  the  application  of 
fat  or  oil  suggested  union  with  the  god,  and  transmission 
of  his  virtues  to  the  person  anointed.  (See  Rob.  Smith, 
"  Rel.  Sem,"  p.  233,  382  &.)  This  rite  and  title,  there- 
fore, emphasise  the  Divine  choice  and  consecration  of 
the  bearer. 

It  occurs  first  in  the  later  technical  sense  of  the 
national  Saviour,  probably  in  Dan.  9^^,  and  is  found  in 
1  Enoch  524,  and  Ps.  Sol.  1736,  186,  8 ;  Mt.  2^,  16i6,  22^2, 

245,  23^  2663  ;   Lk.  2",    26,  4I8,   2426,    46  ;    Jn.   120,  41,  ^25. 

It  is  the  universal  title  in  Acts  and  Epistles.  (Ac. 
427,  1038.  Oesterley,  ''  Messianic  Idea,"  p.  190.  1  En. 
4810;  4  Ezra  729, 1232  ;  2  Bar.  293,  etc.) 

In  his  personal  character  the  Messiah  is  to  be  Righteous. 
(1  Enoch  382,  452  f  .^  536  •  Test.  Jud.  24^ ;  Zech.  9^  ; 
Isa.  11 ;  cf.  Acts  3i4,  7^2,  24i4  ;  1  Jn.  2^.) 

Pure  from  sin.  (Ps.  Sol.  17^1 ;  Test.  Jud.  24^ ;  Test. 
Lev.  8.) 

Wise,    (Ps.  Sol.  1742 ;  Isa.  9  ;  11.) 

Meek,  (Test.  Jud.  24^ ;  Zech.  9^  ;  Isa.  53'  ;  Ps.  45* 
(in  Targum  and  LXX). )  Oesterley  ("  Messianic  Idea"), 
p.  258 ;  contrast  Jer.  1725,  22^. 

This  is  "  not  an  attribute  of  Messiah  200  B.c- 
100  A.D."     (Charles.) 


60  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

He  is  human,  called  Son  of  Man,  This  name  originated 
Dan.  7^3,  and  the  idea  is  developed  in  4  Ezra  13  ;  and 
the  title  frequent  in  1  Enoch  (462-4,  482,  Q2^-u,  63^1, 

0926-29^  701,  7114^  17). 

This  title  was  used  by  our  Lord,  but  was  not  under- 
stood by  the  Jews  (Jn.  12^4) ;  it  was  clearly  revived  by 
Christ  with  a  new  meaning,  and  was  not  the  current 
conception  of  the  Messiah. 

His  human  aspect  would  be  the  first  thought  of, 
and  therefore  tacitly  underlies  many  of  the  passages 
describing  His  work.  (Hastings,  iii.  p.  355=' ;  Oesterley, 
*'  Last  Things,"  p.  147  ff. ;  Driver's  ''  Daniel "  (Cam- 
bridge Bible  Series) ;   Fairweather,  B.  G.,  p.  294.) 

But  he  is  also  pre-existent,  not  one  from  among  the 
sons  of  men.  (Perhaps  Dan.  7i3  ;  Mic.  52  ;  2  Bar.  29^, 
301,  397  .  4  Ezra  726  if.,  1232, 148^  1326  ;  Sib.  o^u,  -  from 
the  plains  of  heaven."  1  Enoch  48^,  6^  6I10,  626,  ?,  70^ ; 
Jn.  858  ;  Westcott,  p.  103.) 

And  so  we  come  to  the  notion  that  he  is  actually 
Divine,  and  Son  of  God.  (1  Enoch  1052,  ''  My  Son  "  ; 
4  Ezra  728,  29^  1332^  37^  52^  149^  »  My  Son"  ;  cf.  Ps.  2  ; 
Isa.  9  (especially  Oesterley,  "  Messianic  Idea,"  p.  212 
fE.) ;  Mt.  317,  175,  2663  ;  Jn.  passim,  "  My  Father  "  ; 
Westcott,  pp.  103,  133?^.) 

What  is  to  be  the  effect  of  his  coming  ? 

In  the  first  place,  it  will  be  attended  with  suffering 
to  himself,  a  necessary  feature  of  all  work  of  deliverance. 
(Gen.  315  ;  Isa.  53  ;   Zech.  12io.) 

The  thought  was  induced  partly  by  Jacob's  exile, 
the  Captivity,  and  the  sufferings  at  the  hands,  e.g., 
of   Antiochus   Epiphanes,   in  Maccabean  and   Roman 


THE  MESSIANIC  HOPE  61 

periods.  It  is  also  "  in  the  nature  of  things "  (of. 
Plato,  Repub.  361  E.). 

But  the  idea  existed  only  in  germ;  it  was  never  realised 
or  appreciated  by  the  Jews  ;  it  was  hard  to  reconcile 
with  that  of  a  triumphant  deliverer  ;  it  was  only  the 
personality  and  teaching  of  Christ  that  elucidated  and 
emphasised  this  aspect,  mth  what  difficulties  the 
Gospels  tell  us.  (Lk.  2426,  46  ;  Mk.  930  ff. ;  1  Cor.  123  ; 
Fairweather  (E.  A.),  p.  36  ;  Westcott,  p.  145n.) 

Rather  were  the  current  ideas  just  the  reverse,  and 
naturally  so.  The  idea  of  pohtical  deliverance  and 
poHtical,  national  ascendancy  took  rise  in  the  oppres- 
sions and  difficulties  of  the  eighth  century,  and  developed 
largely  in  the  Babylonish  captivity.  Hence  it  is  largely 
reflected  in  the  Old  Testament,  especially  the  Second 
Isaiah,  where  a  beautiful  picture  of  the  returning  exiles 
is  given,  and  their  triumph  over  their  oppressors  and 
re-establishment  in  their  own  land  in  unending  prosperity 
and  peace.  (Cf.  also  Isa.  9  ;  11 ;  35  ;  Mic.  4^  ff.,  52  fE. ; 
Dan.  714;  Ezek.  3427.) 

In  the  Old  Testament  the  idea  is  almost  entirely 
material  and  this-worldly,  though  the  prophets  included 
and  insisted  on  a  moral  purification  and  restoration.  The 
majority  of  people  can  hardly  get  beyond  this  conception, 
and  this,  with  the  provocations  caused  by  repeated 
oppressions  and  insults  offered  to  the  national  pride  in 
the  intermediate  period,  had  its  effect  in  the  popular 
teaching  and  literature. 

Thus  Sibyll.  iii.  652  describes  the  peace,  wealth, 
and  prosperity  of  the  restored  people ;  Tobit  13^6,  14^, 


62  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem,  and  the  regathering  of  the 
tribes ;  Sir.  361^  the  punishing  of  their  enemies.  (Acts  1^ ; 
Sib.  5249  ff.,  420 ;  Sib.  3741  fE._794 ;  4  Ezra  1340,  852  . 
2  Bar.  713-744,  29 ;  Isa.  35 ;  Westcott,  p.  117 ;  Hastings, 
i.  p.  742b  ff. ;  Fairweather  (B.  G.),  p.  168  ff. ;  (E.  A. 
p.  175).) 

One  feature  of  his  reign  is  the  Feast.  (Cf.  Isa.  25^ 
(very  late) ;  Zeph.  1"^  (a  common  Oriental  conception) ; 
4  Ezra  6^2  gays  on  flesh  of  behemoth  and  leviathan  ; 
also  2  Bar.  294.  i  Enoch  62^4  ;  Ps.  74i2-i4  ;  Lk.  14i5, 
"  Blessed  are  they  that  shall  eat  bread  in  the  kingdom 
of  God."  Mt.  811,  221,  2629;  Lk.  2230 ;  Oesterley, 
*'  Last  Things,"  pp.  60,  122, 142,  187  ;  Savage,  "  Gospel 
of  the  Kingdom,"  p.  195  note.) 

It  includes  vengeance  on  Israel's  enemies,  and  on  the 
wicked.  (Cf.  reference  on  "  judge,"  p.  57  ;  1  Enoch 
91i2j  sinners  are  delivered  into  the  hands  of  the  righteous ; 
2  Bar.  722  ;  Prophets  passim  ;  Sir.  35i8  ;  Ps.  Sol.  17.) 

The  benefit  is  thus  all  for  the  chosen  people  alone, 
(Psalms  and  Prophets  ;  Sir.  36  ;  4  Ezra  6^9,  8^2,  53^  1325  ; 
Dan.  722  ;  2  Bar.  72  ;  Jub.  especially  15^1,  307-17,  129  ; 
Ass.  Mos.  107 ;  4  Ezra  ;  Ps.  Sol.  9^,  184  .  Westcott,  p. 
112.) 

Yet  the  higher  ethical  and  spiritual  teaching  held 
its  own,  and  the  office  of  the  Messiah  grew  to  that  of 
judge  between  good  and  evil,  and  vindicator  of  the 
righteous  as  well  as  of  the  champion  and  restorer  of  the 
seed  of  Abraham.  And  ^vith  this  we  trace  a  breaking 
away  from  the  old  exclusive  spirit,  and  a  more  catholic 
and  sympathetic  ideal  springing  up.  Jerusalem  and 
this  earth  and  the  Jews  are  not  to  be  the  centre  and 


THE  MESSIANIC  HOPE  63 

scene  and  the  sole  beneficiaries  of  the  Messiah's 
reign ;  there  is  to  be  a  new  heaven  and  earth,  a  new 
Jerusalem,  every  one  that  is  pure  and  righteous  shall 
dwell  therein. 

This  higher  conception  was  present  from  a  com- 
paratively early  date,  and  other  peoples  were  granted 
a  share  in  the  coming  blessings,  even  if  their  position 
was  subordinate  to  that  of  the  true  IsraeHte.  (See 
especially  2  Isaiah.  Isa.  IP;  Mic.  4^;  Jonah;  especially 
Tests.  XII.  Patr.;  T.  Benj.  92;  T.  S.  72;  T.  N.  2^ ; 
T.  L.  U4  ;  44,  814,  211 ;  T.  S.  6^  ;  T.  N.  83  ;  T.  A.  7^  ; 
T.  D.  67  ;  T.  Jud.  25^ ;  T.  B.  10-^ ;  Ps.  Sol.  1732  ;  Jn. 
442.) 

The  conception  gradually  slips  away  from  this  earth 
and  material  things  ;  political  events  prove  the  value- 
lessness  of  earthly  power  and  wealth  ;  suffering  teaches 
the  value  of  spiritual  blessings  and  virtues  ;  it  is  not  the 
Gentiles  who  are  to  be  punished,  so  much  as  the  wicked  ; 
and  the  kingdom  of  the  Messiah  is  in  the  spiritual  sphere  ; 
the  knowledge  of  Jehovah  is  the  condition  of  attaining 
it.  Elements  of  this  appear  in  the  teaching  of  Isa.  (11^), 
and  its  later  development  was  due  largely  to  the  efforts 
of  the  Pharisees.  The  present  condition  was  so  hopeless 
that  a  new  age  was  necessary  for  reaHsing  the  promises. 
(1  Enoch  (911'^),  "  inexhaustible  fountain  of  righteousness 
— fountain  of  wisdom,"  quoted  by  Westcott,  p.  108. 
Ass.  Mos.  118,  repentance ;  1  Enoch  45^,  9V^  ;  2  Bar. 
4412-15  ;  Isa.  258  .  pg.  Sol.  1728.) 

Cf.  also  the  idea  of  a  new  heaven  and  a  new  earth, 
(Isa.  6517  ;  2  Bar.  326,  572  ;  4  Ezra  7^5,  5^5  ;  Jub.  pQ  ; 
1  Enoch  514,  721 .  |^t.  I928  ;  2  Pet.  3i3 ;  Rev.  2P.) 


64  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

Hence  the  last  idea  to  be  noticed,  that  of  a  future 
life,  or  personal  immortality  (developed  partly  under 
Persian  influence).  (Dan.  122  .  jga.  2619,  258  ;  2  Bar. 
302,  5415^  592.  jub.  2331;  1  Enoch  92^,  51^  (see  Charles's 
note),  9110  ;  Hos.  131*  ;  Ezek.  37i2  ;  Enoch  91-104  ; 
Ps.  Sol. ;  4  Ezra  732;  Hast.,i.  pp.  110b,  748b ;  E.  Bibl., 
1345,  1354-6  fi. ;  Fairweather,  B.  G.,  283,  290,  49 ; 
Oesterley,  L.  T.,  116.) 

Each  and  all  of  the  foregoing  characteristics  of  the 
Messiah  wall  have  already  recalled  in  our  minds  many 
passages  and  allusions  in  the  New  Testament ;  and 
there  are  a  large  number  of  passages  and  phrases  in  the 
Old  Testament,  too  numerous  to  mention,  which  receive 
a  fresh  and  a  wonderful  light  from  their  use  by  or  appro- 
priateness to  Jesus  Christ.  And  these  passages  and 
conceptions,  in  their  collective  capacity,  form  the 
strength  of  the  Saviour's  claim  to  "  fulfil  "  the  Law  and 
the  prophets,  and  of  the  Apostles'  earhest  teaching. 
(Mt.  517,  13^2  ;  Acts  (pass.) ;  ''  Lux  Mundi,"  p.  132  ff., 
159.    See  especially  Westcott,  pp.  129,  157,  158.) 

There  is  a  good  chapter  on  this  subject  in  Shailer 
Matthews  (ch.  xiv.).  (See  also  Schiirer,  II.  ii.  p.  126  if.  ; 
Latimer  Jackson,  p.  250,  273,  302  ;  Miiirhead,  pp.  112.) 


CHAPTER  IV 

HELLENISM   AND   THE    DISPERSION — ''WISDOM*' 

Mention  was  made  in  Chapters  I.  and  II.  of  the  influence 
of  the  Eomans  on  Jewish  life  and  history  ;  but  the  other 
ancient  World-Power,  Greece,  played  no  less  part  in 
preparing  the  way  for  Christ ;  indeed,  it  was  of  far 
greater  moment,  in  its  influence  on  Jewish  belief  and 
thought ;  the  points  of  contact  also  were  far  more 
numerous,  being  spread  over  a  wider  range  of  area  and 
of  history.  This  influence  goes  by  the  name  of  Hellenism, 
and  was  the  result  of  the  conquests  of  Alexander  the 
Great  (d.  323).  Naturally  he  left  behind  him  a  trail 
of  Greek  settlers,  and  his  policy  was  to  found  centres 
of  Greek  influence  in  the  countries  which  he  conquered. 
Schiirer  has  collected  the  names  of  a  number  of  places, 
like  Gaza,  Azotus,  Caesarea,  Ptolemais,  which  had  their 
origin  from  such  a  policy  of  his  or  his  successors  (II.  i., 
p.  12  ff.) ;  and  these  would  form  centres  from  which 
Greek  methods,  Greek  habits,  Greek  manufactures, 
Greek  words,  Greek  art,  Greek  ideas,  Greek  thought, 
Greek  tastes,  Greek  religion,  would  radiate,  and  influence 
the  lines  and  development  of  the  native  races.  Judaea, 
from  its  close  connection  with  Syria,  could  not  escape 

E 


66  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHEISTIANITY 

this  influence,  and  in  the  century  300-200,  whicli  was 
one  of  comparative  peace  and  prosperity,  the  Hellenic 
influence  arising  from  close  and  constant  intercourse 
must  have  been  very  great. 

It  was  not  upon  an  unwilling  or  an  unprepared 
people  that  Antiochus  Epiphanes  tried  to  enforce  the 
full  acceptance  of  things  Greek ;  and  not  a  few  of  the 
more  enlightened  (and  enlightened  by  their  very  contact 
with  a  \^dder  world)  must  have  welcomed  much  that 
the  Greek  spirit  had  brought ;  many  of  the  priestly 
families  (the  forebears  of  the  later  Sadducees)  had  lent 
it  their  support.  Indeed,  it  was  only  his  deliberate 
attempt  to  abolish  the  Jewish  religion  and  his  gross 
profanation  of  the  temple  by  the  erecting  on  the  altar 
a  small  altar  to  Zeus,  and  the  sacrifice  of  a  pig  (the 
"  abomination  of  desolation  "  of  Dan.  11 3^),  that  caused 
the  resistance  to  it.  Of  these  events  we  have  the  record 
in  1  Maccabees,  lii-i5/i  ff. ;  2  Maccabees,  4io  ff.,  with 
their  mention  of  Greek  fashions,  clothes,  games,  etc., 
their  widespread  popularity,  and  the  dismay  that  they 
caused  to  the  older  heads. 

Still  more  marked  was  Greek  influence  among  the 
Jews  of  the  Dispersion  where  the  hold  on  traditional 
Judaism,  though  very  real,  was  slighter.  And  from  the 
point  of  view  of  Judaism  taken  as  a  whole  this  influence 
is  of  the  greatest  importance,  by  reason  of  the  far  greater 
numerical  superiority  of  these  Jews  to  those  in  Palestine. 
For  it  must  be  remembered  that  only  some  50,000  Jews 
returned  to  Palestine,  under  Zerubbabel  and  Ezra,  and 
that  the  wealthiest  and  most  influential,  as  well  as  the 
majority,  remained  in  Babylon.    So  that  by  the  time  of 


HELLENISM  AND  THE  DISPERSION         67 

Josephus  (a.d.  37-101)  they  were  reckoned  in  millions, 
taking  the  Euphrates  district  as  a  whole.  A  later 
tradition  said  that  Cyrus  forbade  any  further  return, 
for  fear  of  losing  his  population ;  and  so  numerous  and 
powerful  were  they  in  a.d.  40,  that  the  Romans  shrank 
from  provoking  their  hostility.  (Edersheim,  I.  p.  8.) 
Mommsen  actually  speaks  of  them  as  the  third  factor 
in  the  Roman  Empire  (Bk.  V.  c.  11). 

To  the  north-west  of  the  Euphrates  valley  was 
another  large  settlement,  in  Syria,  especially  round 
Antioch  and  Damascus  ;  and  they  spread  thence  over 
Asia  Minor,  especially  to  the  large  commercial  centres 
like  Ephesus,  Pergamos,  Sardis.  About  200  B.C. 
Antiochus  III.  (the  Great)  settled  2000  Jews  from 
Mesopotamia  in  Lydia  and  Phrygia. 

The  largest,  and  ultimately  the  most  important  of 
all,  was  the  colony  in  Egypt.  This  had  originated  in 
the  men  who  had  fled  thither  from  Nebuchadnezzar, 
taking  with  them,  against  his  will,  the  prophet  Jeremiah. 
A  large  number  had  gone  \^dth  Alexander  the  Great, 
and  eventually  founded  the  famous  city  and  seat  of 
learning,  Alexandria.  Ptolemy  I.  (c.  300)  imported 
thousands  more,  so  that  they  numbered  two-fifths  of  the 
whole  population ;  and  also  into  Cyrene,  where  they 
formed  one-quarter.  In  the  days  of  the  Maccabees 
Onias  IV.  (High  Priest)  fled  thither,  with  a  view  of 
transferring  the  headquarters  of  Judaism  from  Jeru- 
salem, so  low  had  their  fortunes  sunk  in  Palestine,  and 
so  influential  were  the  Jews  in  Egypt.  He  estabHshed 
a  temple  at  Leontopolis,  which  survived  till  the  days 
of  Vespasian.    In  the  days  of  Philo  (b.c.  20 — a.d.  45) 


68  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

they  numbered  a  million,  and  in  Alexandria  two  districts 
out  of  five  were  entirely  Jewish. 

They  were  to  be  found  in  practically  all  parts  of  the 
civilised  world,  and  Acts  2^  describes  the  cosmopolitan 
nature  of  the  crowd  at  Jerusalem  on  the  day  of  Pente- 
cost, and  St.  Paul  found  synagogues  of  the  Jews  at 
Thessalonica,  Beroea,  Athens,  and  Corinth.  At  Rome 
they  were  increased  by  the  captives  taken  thither  by 
Pompey,  in  B.C.  61,  and  afterwards  made  freedmen. 
Horace  and  Juvenal  and  Tacitus  and  others  frequently 
allude  to  their  presence  there.  (Juv.  Sat.  3.  14,  297  ; 
10.  94  ;  14.  96  ;  Hor.  Sat.  1.  4.  143  ;  5.  100 ;  9.  69  ; 
Tac.  Hist.  5.  4,  5 ;  Cicero,  pro  Flacco,  66 ;  cf .  an  inter- 
esting article  by  Professor  H.  A.  Strong  in  the  Hibhert 
Journal  for  January,  1915.) 

Not  the  least  interesting  or  important  colony  was 
that  created  by  Aristobulus  (High  Priest)  son  of  John 
Hyrcanus,  in  104  B.C.,  in  Iturea,  known  as  "  Galilee," 
or  the  Region,  "  of  the  nations  "  (Isa.  9^),  by  compelling 
them  to  accept  Judaism  at  the  point  of  the  sword.  The 
New  Testament  refers  to  the  provincial  and  semi- 
foreign  accent  of  our  Lord's  disciples  (Mt.  26'^^) 

These  Jews,  living  out  of  Palestine  and  possessing 
thus  a  double  nationaUty,  were  known  as  the  Diaspora, 
or  Dispersion,  as  we  read  in  Jn.  7^^  ;  Jas.  1^ ;  1  Pet.  1^, 
though  in  the  two  latter  passages  the  technical  meaning 
is  obscured  in  the  A.V.  The  Greek  word  ^moTrojoa 
is  suggestive,  as  it  conveys  the  idea  of  seed  scattered 
abroad  with  a  view  to  harvest.  (See  especially  "Lux 
Mundi,"  p.  151  ff. ;  Fairweather,  E.  A.,  pp.  102, 
108    ff.,    143;    Fairweather,   B.   G.,   p.  155;    Bevan, 


HELLENISM  AND  THE  DISPERSION  G9 

J.  H.  P.,  p.  115  ;  Westcott,  p.  64  ;  Oesterley,  p.  49  ; 
Schiirer,  IL,  ii.,  p.  219  if.) 

With  all  these  Jews,  born  and  bred  in  Greek  cities 
and  under  Greek  influence,  it  was  inevitable  that  their 
habits  and  mode  of  life  should  be  affected,  and  their 
knowledge  and  mental  outlook  widened ;  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  that  their  nationahty  and  their  exclusiveness 
should  be  intensified.  For  if  Greek  thought  and  civili- 
sation came  as  a  revelation  to  the  Jewish  mind,  it  came 
also  as  a  distinct  challenge  ;  and,  as  we  know,  Judaism 
never  failed  in  lively  and  vigorous  response  to  any 
challenge  offered  it.  This  exclusiveness  and  pride  of 
race  is  evident  from  early  days  in  the  Old  Testament, 
where  their  boast  was  that  they  were  the  Chosen  People 
of  Jehovah,  to  the  contempt  of  all  other  peoples.  And 
oppression  and  persecution  only  made  them  draw  yet 
closer  to  each  other.  Wherever  they  went  they  formed 
a  separate  and  distinct  community,  and  were  able  in 
most  cases  to  procure  for  themselves  peculiar  rights  and 
privileges  and  immunities,  such  as  self-government. 
Sabbath  observance,  payment  of  tribute  to  Jerusalem, 
equality  of  civic  rights  and  advantages  with  their 
fellow-townsmen. 

Their  attitude  towards  foreigners,  too,  had  not  been 
of  the  friendhest,  for  which  they  had  had  good  reason 
during  the  latter  days  of  the  monarchy,  the  captivity, 
and  the  weary  centuries  when  they  were  overrun  by 
foreign  armies  ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  no  nation  would 
be  too  readily  inclined  to  welcome  them,  with  their 
intense  pride,  their  close  freemasonry,  their  economical 
habits,  their  commercial  skill,  their  obstinacy.    Gentiles 


70  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

had  always  in  their  eyes  been  inferior  to  the  chosen 
people  of  Jehovah ;  and  more  than  one  Gentile  nation 
had  earned  their  undying  enmity  by  conquest  and  ill- 
treatment.  The  feud  with  the  Samaritans,  described 
in  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  and  the  reforms  by  which  they 
tried  to  stop  the  prevalence  of  mixed  marriages,  all 
intensified  the  national  exclusiveness. 

This  exclusiveness  found  expression  also  in  a  strong 
attachment  to  the  Temple,  whither  annual  tribute  was 
sent,  and  pilgrimages  made  at  the  times  of  the  great 
feasts.  (In  the  last  chapter  we  saw  how  the  reunion  of 
the  scattered  tribes  and  the  restoration  of  Jerusalem 
and  the  Temple  formed  part  of  the  national  hope.) 
Yet  perhaps  its  most  potent  result  was  the  care  with 
which  their  religious  teaching  was  preserved,  issuing 
in  the  formation  of  the  Canon  of  Holy  Scripture,  the 
Septuagint  (Greek  Version  of  the  Scriptures),  the  growth 
of  the  body  of  the  Scribes,  and  the  teaching  of  the 
Rabbis  embodied  in  the  later  Targums  and  Talmud. 
(Edersheim,  I.  ch.  5,  6  ;  Fairweather,  B.  G.,  pp.  40, 
315 ;  Fairweather,  E.  A.,  pp.  44,  45,  67 ;  Wade,  ''  0.  T. 
Hist.,"  p.  499.) 

Up  to  the  time  of  the  captivity  and  after  there  had 
usually  been  the  voice  of  prophecy  to  declare  God's 
will  and  to  direct  the  nation.  But  with  Malachi  the 
race  of  prophets  died  out,  and  for  400  years  or  so  they 
waited  anxiously  for  the  new  prophet  that  should  come. 
(Deut.  18  ;  Jn.'l2i,  6i4,  7^0,  and  Mt.  21ii  refs.)  Some- 
thing had  to  be  done  ;  and  we  find  them  turning  to  the 
old  writings,  interpreting  them,  and  gradually  forming 
them  into  a  single  collection,  known  as  "  the  Law, 


HELLENISM  AND  THE  DISPERSION        71 

the  prophets,  and  the  (Sacred)  writings."  Ezra  estab- 
lished the  reading  of  the  Law  as  an  essential  part  of 
public  worship,  and  added  to  it  the  delivery  of  a  running 
commentary  or  paraphrase ;  and  so  he  became  the 
father  of  the  Scribes  and  the  originator  of  the  Targums 
(Ezra  8^).  Schools  of  study  and  instruction  arose 
with  the  Rabbis  at  their  heads  ;  and  whether  in  Palestine 
or  in  the  Dispersion,  the  study  of  the  Law  was  a  powerful 
bond  of  union  and  point  d'appui.  The  rigid  care 
and  veneration  in  which  it  was  held  ensured  the  con- 
tinuity and  purity  of  the  message,  even  if  it  was  marred 
and  misinterpreted  during  the  centuries  of  its  develop- 
ment. Students  of  the  New  Testament,  even  of  the 
Gospels  only,  know  how  the  whole  religious  Hfe  and 
hope  of  the  people  centred  round  the  Law,  so  as  to 
justify  the  statement  of  Professor  Wendt,  that  the 
formation  of  the  Old  Testament  canon  was  "  the  most 
important  historical  fact  of  post-exilian  Judaism." 
(Fairweather,  B.  G.,  p.  40  if. ;  Westcott,  p.  55  ff. ; 
Oesterley,  p.  160 ;   Schiirer,  II.  i.,  p.  306.) 

The  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures  followed  close  on 
the  heels  of  the  formation  of  the  Canon,  and  the  Helle- 
nistic atmosphere  demanded  some  statement  of  the 
true  relation  of  Jewish  teaching  to  Greek  philosophy 
and  thought.  Many  of  the  Jews  were  also  entirely 
Greek  in  spirit,  and  apparent  contradictions  had  to  be 
removed,  and  a  synthesis  established  in  which  the  two 
formed  a  harmonious  unity.  And  so  we  find  Aristobulus 
(B.C.  180-146)  in  a  commentary  on  the  Law  of  Moses 
asserting  that  the  Greek  philosophers  had  borrowed 
largely   from   him ;     to   substantiate   his   position   he 


72  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

initiated  the  allegorical  method  of  expounding  Scripture, 
a  method  by  which  almost  anything  might  be  proved 
from  the  sacred  text,  and  for  which  Alexandria  became 
famous  in  the  days  of  Clement  and  Origen.  Versions 
of  Homer  and  Hesiod  appeared,  cast  in  a  light  intended 
to  show  their  dependence  on  Moses,  and  the  Sibylline 
oracles  were  edited  from  a  similar  point  of  view. 

This  tendency  developed,  and  found  its  fullest  and 
highest  expression  in  Philo,  a  Jewish  philosopher  who 
flourished  at  Alexandria  in  the  time  of  our  Lord,  and 
largely  influenced  Christian  theology.  (Fairweather, 
B.  G.,  p.  320,  329  if.,  349  fl.,  418 ;  Westcott,  p.  78  ff. ; 
Edersheim,  L,  p.  33.) 

Living  thus  in  a  Greek  city,  and  using  Greek  as  the 
usual  medium  of  conversation,  the  Jews  would  worship 
in  the  Greek  tongue,  and  so  need  a  Greek  version  of 
the  Scriptures  ;  and  this  would  not  only  provide  for 
their  wants,  but  would  also  be  a  means  of  introducing 
their  faith  to  their  heathen  neighbours.  To  this  need 
we  owe  the  Septuagint,  whatever  be  the  truth  as  to  its 
actual  completion.  One  account  makes  it  the  work  of 
seventy-two  scholars  sent  by  request  from  Jerusalem 
(hence  its  name),  but  it  is  certainly  the  work  of  Alex- 
andrian Jews,  and  bears  traces  of  accommodation  to 
Greek  thought.  (It  may  be  dated  roughly  250-150  B.C.) 
In  particular  scholars  have  noticed  a  tendency  to  remove 
or  modify  anthropomorphisms,  i.e.  phrases  in  which  God 
is  spoken  of  in  human  form  and  manner,  in  order  to 
harmonise  with  the  transcendental,  spiritual  conception 
of  deity  held  by  the  Greeks. 

The  completion  of  this  work  was  far-reaching  in 


HELLENISM  AND  THE  DISPERSION  73 

its  effect.  It  undoubtedly  encouraged  tlie  broadening 
tendency  of  Hellenism,  by  rendering  a  knowledge  of 
Hebrew  no  longer  necessary  for  the  Jew  ;  and  it  was 
a  powerful  vehicle  for  the  introduction  of  Jewish  teaching 
to  the  Gentile  world  ;  in  it  all  men  could  read  and  study 
for  themselves.  It  was  widely  used,  even  in  Palestine, 
as  is  shown  by  the  number  of  quotations  made  from  it  in 
the  New  Testament ;  it  exercised  no  small  influence  on 
New  Testament  language  and  the  Fathers  ;  to  us  it  is 
a  valuable  guide  as  to  the  original  text  of  the  Old 
Testament,  having  been  made  from  a  Hebrew  text  far 
older  than  any  that  we  now  possess  ;  in  the  Eastern 
Church  it  is  established  as  their  "  Authorised  Version." 

Moreover,  it  filled  a  gap  in  the  life  of  the  Jews. 
To  the  Dispersion,  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem  was  but  a 
name  ;  few  of  them  were  ever  likely  to  see  it,  though 
all  hoped  to  ;  and  this  version  of  their  cherished  Law 
gave  them  a  common  link  and  a  rallying  point ;  all 
were  at  one  in  this,  and  drew  their  spiritual  life  from  it, 
even  if  the  central  sanctuary  and  its  services  were  too 
remote  for  them,  or  even  from  time  to  time  desecrated 
and  in  abeyance.  And  it  bridged  the  gulf  that  separated 
them  from  the  Gentile  world ;  for  now  the  Greek 
language  was  made  the  vehicle  of  Jewish  thought,  and 
the  two,  thus  united,  became,  later  on,  the  medium 
through  which  Christianity  was  diffused.  (Fairweather, 
B.  G.,  325  ff.;  Fairweather,  E.  A.,  100;  Paterson 
Smyth,  "  Old  Documents,  etc.,"  p.  147  ;  Westcott,  p.  77  ; 
Edersheim,  I.,  p.  26 ;  Oesterley,  p.  58  ;  Schiirer,  II.,  iii., 
p.  159.) 

The  Dispersion  was  not  without  its  influence  on  the 


74         THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

nations  with  wliom  the  Jews  made  their  homes.  It 
was  a  true  Preparatio  Evangehca,  for  it  familiarised 
the  whole  civilised  world  with  Jewish  thought,  hopes, 
and  beliefs,  and  so  the  most  important  part  of  the 
human  race  (at  that  time)  had  instilled  into  them  the 
seed  out  of  which  Christianity  was  developed.  The 
appeal  of  Christianity  would  thus  fall  on  ears  not  entirely 
ignorant  or  unprepared ;  while  the  Jews  themselves 
in  all  lands  would  from  their  previous  preparation  and 
strong  hope,  be  naturally  ready  to  welcome  Christianity, 
and  so  become  the  nucleus  of  the  Christian  Church. 
If  they  had  done  no  more  than  witness  to  the  truth  of 
monotheism,  in  the  middle  of  a  polytheistic  and  syncre- 
tistic  world,  that  in  itself  would  have  been  much.  In 
Palestine,  as  we  have  seen,  it  was  from  the  descendants 
of  foreign  Jews  in  Galilee  that  our  Lord  drew  at  least 
some  of  His  disciples,  and  He  included  in  them  also  St. 
Philip,  who  bore,  at  any  rate,  a  Greek  name.  (Cf. 
Fairweather,  B.  G.,  p.  367  (quoting  Weiszacker).) 

We  have  yet  another  phenomenon  of  this  period  to 
describe,  the  Wisdom  movement  and  literature.  Ex- 
amples of  this  in  the  Old  Testament  are  the  books  of 
Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes,  and  Job,  and  certain  Psalms  ; 
and  in  the  Apocrypha  the  books  of  Sirach  (son  of), 
or  Ecclesiasticus,  and  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon  (so  called). 
This  was  the  nearest  approach  to  philosophy  that  a 
Hebrew  could  come  ;  he  could  not  investigate  life  with 
an  open  mind,  for  he  necessarily  started  from  the 
assumptions  of  the  existence  of  God  and  of  a  Divine 
revelation  in  the  Law.  But  he  could  and  did  investigate 
the  order  of  things,  and  show  in  the  light  of  these 


HELLENISM  AND  THE  DISPERSION         75 

principles  liow  "  all  things  worked  together "  under 
God's  providence,  and  "  for  good  to  them  that  love  God." 
Hebrew  thought  was  thus  concrete  not  abstract,  practical 
not  theoretical.  In  this  Wisdom  movement  may  be 
traced  side  by  side,  elements  of  philosophy,  ethics, 
poetry,  mysticism,  and  religion ;  and  it  owed  its  rise 
largely  to  the  wave  of  Hellenism  in  the  second  century 
B.C.,  which  challenged  Judaism  to  give  an  account  of 
itself,  to  the  keen  and  subtle  intellects  of  the  Greek 
world,  and  to  justify  its  claims.  It  became,  therefore, 
an  apologia  pro  judaismo,  a  defence  of  the  Mosaic  Law, 
and  a  protest  against  heathenism. 

But  it  was  also  forced  on  the  Jews  themselves  for 
another  reason.  The  old  teaching  maintained  that  if 
a  man  did  right  he  was  rewarded  by  material  prosperity, 
and  that  the  wicked  were  punished  with  adversity ; 
moreover,  religion  had  in  early  days  been  largely 
national,  and  the  fortunes  of  the  individual  had  been 
but  scarcely  considered ;  but  the  captivity  and  the 
Diaspora  had  played  havoc  with  national  ideals,  and 
the  sufferings  of  the  Jews  demanded  some  explanation 
of  the  glaring  contradiction  between  promise  and 
result,  between  faith  and  experience.  Individualism 
was  being  forced  to  the  front,  and  righteousness  by  no 
means  invariably  received  its  reward. 

Thus  the  Wisdom  literature  deals  with  the  problem 
of  the  moral  government  of  the  world,  and  while  uphold- 
ing the  truth  of  the  Mosaic  teaching,  it  widens  its  appli- 
cation, and  embraces  all  mankind  in  its  purview  ;  while 
giving  minute  instructions  as  to  the  conduct  of  this  life, 
it  is  not  unmindful  that  there  is  a  hereafter,  where  the 


76  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

inequalities  and  unrighteousness  of  this  world  will  be 
redressed.  (The  same  problem  appears  in  Plato, 
Rep.  360  eff.) 

One  remarkable  feature  is  the  personification  of 
Wisdom,  by  which  she  appears  as  God's  right  hand 
agent,  and  representative.  See  Prov.  822-31 5  Wisd. 
9S  10  (  =  Angel  of  Jehovah). 

"  Jehovah  possessed  (formed)  me  in  (as)  the  beginning 
of  His  way,  before  (the  first  of)  His  works  of  old. 

"  I  was  set  up  from  everlasting,  from  the  beginning, 
or  ever  the  earth  was. 

"  When  there  were  no  depths,  I  was  brought 
forth  ;  when  there  were  no  fountains  abounding  with 
water. 

"  Before  the  mountains  were  settled,  before  the 
hills  was  I  brought  forth  : 

"  While  as  yet  He  had  not  made  the  earth,  nor  the 
fields,  nor  the  beginning  of  the  dust  of  the  world. 

"  When  He  established  the  heavens,  I  was  there  ; 
when  He  set  a  circle  upon  the  face  of  the  deep  : 

*'  When  He  made  firm  the  skies  above  :  when  the 
fountains  of  the  deep  became  strong  : 

"  When  He  gave  to  the  sea  its  bound,  that  the 
waters  should  not  transgress  His  commandment :  when 
He  marked  out  the  foundations  of  the  earth  : 

"  Then  was  I  by  Him,  as  a  master- workman  :  and 
I  was  daily  His  delight,  rejoicing  always  before 
Him  ; 

"  Rejoicing  in  His  habitable  earth  ;  and  my  delight 
was  with  the  sons  of  men." 

Thus  she  is  *'  at  once  the  expression  of  the  Divine 


HELLENISM  AND  THE  DISPERSION        77 

intelligence,  the  reflexion  of  the  Divine  character,  and 
the  unfolding  of  the  Divine  purpose."  (Fairweather, 
B.  G.,  p.  83.)  Besides  this  objective  conception,  she  is 
also  viewed  subjectively,  as  man's  inner  guide  and 
counsellor,  and  she  dwells  with  those  who  recognise 
God's  purpose  and  power,  and  try  to  do  His  Will, 
denoting  man's  susceptibility  to  the  Divine  reason  which 
permeates  the  mind.  Thus  "  the  fear  of  the  Lord  is 
the  beginning  of  Wisdom."  (Fairweather,  B.  G.,  p. 
148  ;  Sir.  24  ;  Wisd.  99.) 

It  is  noticeable  further  about  this  latter  aspect  of 
Wisdom  that  learning  and  piety  are  all  but  if  not  quite 
identified,  the  moral  and  intellectual  spheres  are  barely 
distinguished ;  and  Sirach  makes  her  equivalent  to 
the  keeping  of  the  Law.  (Sir.  24io,  ^\  23  ff.  .  i26  ff.  . 
Prov.  119.)  This,  however,  enshrines  the  not  always 
evident  truth  that  moral  rectitude  has  a  great  influence 
on  spiritual  perception.  (See  Jn.  71"^ ;  and  cf.  Sir.  3924  ; 
Prov.  319;  Job  28 ;  Ps.  llliO;  Bar.  39-4^;  Jer.  1012; 
Fairweather,  B.  G.,  p.  79  ff.,  146;  Oesterley,  p. 
226  if.) 

On  the  question  of  the  Divine  justice,  and  the  reward- 
ing of  the  godly  and  the  punishment  of  the  wicked, 
some  passages  blindly  adhere  to  the  original  teachin^^  : 
*'  There  shall  no  mischief  happen  to  the  righteous,  but 
the  wicked  shall  be  filled  with  evil."  (Prov.  122i, 
cf.  1321 ;  Sir.  9^\  33^ ;  12^  ;  16^2,  219,  41i^,  4i9,  5^,  7^  ; 
Prov.  316. 

But  this  assertion,  however,  full  of  faith  and  of  trust 
in  God's  faithfulness  and  righteousness,  could  not  be 


78         THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

maintained  in  the  face  of  facts  ;  and  it  was  held  that 
sufEering  was  a  process  of  purification,  by  which  the 
good  were  made  better,  and  the  inevitable  fire  in  which 
the  precious  metal  was  refined.  See  Prov.  3^^,  "  Despise 
not  the  chastening  of  the  Lord,  neither  be  weary  of 
His  reproof  ;  for  whom  the  Lord  loveth  He  reproveth, 
even  as  a  father  the  son  in  whom  he  delighteth." 

Sir.  4^1,  "  At  first  she  will  walk  wath  him  in 
crooked  ways,  and  torment  him  with  her  discipline." 

Sir.  3214,  "  He  that  feareth  the  Lord  will  receive  his 
discipline." 

Sir.  2^,  "  If  thou  comest  to  serve  the  Lord,  prepare 
thy  soul  for  temptation." 

Cf.  Job  517. 

The  fullest  and  deepest  treatment  of  the  problem 
is  found  in  the  book  of  Job,  where  the  three  friends 
take  up  the  attitude  that  because  Job  suffers  he  must 
therefore  have  sinned  ;  he  defends  himself  and  asserts 
his  uprightness  ;  and  in  the  famous  passage  19-^  he 
appeals  to  his  avenger,  who  in  another  world,  if  not  in 
this,  will  uphold  him  and  vindicate  his  character. 

As  a  consequence  of  these  beliefs  we  have  in  the  book 
of  Sirach  a  manual  of  conduct,  the  appHcation  of  Wisdom 
to  daily  life.  In  it  are  given  directions  as  to  conduct 
in  many  conceivable  relations  of  life,  such  as  family  life, 
adversity,  prosperity  ;  behaviour  to  the  rich  and  poor, 
wise  and  foolish  ;  choice  of  friends,  of  occupations  ; 
dining  out ;  business  ;  and  various  virtues  are  com- 
mended ;  all  in  the  same  sort  of  way  as  in  Proverbs. 


HELLENISM  AND  THE  DISPERSION        79 

(Fairweather,  E.  A.,  p.  120 ;  Bevan,  p.  49  fE. ;  Oesterley, 
p.  321 ;  Schiirer,  11. ,  iii.,  p.  23.) 

The  book  of  Ecclesiastes,  or  the  Preacher,  shows  a 
trace  of  Greek  influence,  in  the  attitude  that  it  adopts 
in  viewing  life  from  the  standpoint  of  the  happiness  of 
the  individual ;  and  while  the  author  is  no  atheist, 
he  is  yet  a  profound  pessimist ;  *'  all  is  vanity  and 
a  striving  after  wind,"  is  his  conclusion. 

In  the  book  of  Wisdom  we  have  a  kind  of  counter- 
blast to  the  Preacher,  and  one  which  is  decidedly  Greek 
in  thought  and  character.  The  writer  enumerates  the 
four  cardinal  virtues  of  Stoicism  (8^) ;  alludes  to  the 
Pythagorean  and  Platonic  doctrine  of  the  pre-existence 
of  the  soul  (820)  •  and  speaks  of  wisdom  in  the  language 
of  Greek  philosophy  (7^2  f!.).  Yet  the  fundamentals 
of  the  book  are  Jewish,  and  the  writer  is  persistent 
in  his  upholding  of  orthodoxy.  (Especially  Fair- 
weather,  B.  G.,  p.  337  if. ;  Hastings,  iv.,  p.  928a ; 
Edersheim,  I.,  p.  32  ;  Oesterley,  p.  455 ;  Schiirer,  II., 
iii.,  p.  230.) 

Three  features  of  this  movement  are  to  be  noticed 
as  part  of  the  preparation  for  Christianity. 

(i.)  The  conception  of  Wisdom  as  a  separate  entity, 
an  emanation  from  the  God-head,  the  agent,  repre- 
sentative, of  the  Creator  ;  the  description  of  her  as  "  a 
breath  of  the  power  of  God,"  God's  "  holy  spirit,"  "  a 
clear  efHuence  of  the  glory  of  the  Almighty,"  "  an  image 
of  His  goodness/'  "  all  powerful,"  "  the  sharer  of  God's 
throne,"  "  all-heaHng,"  "  bearer  of  God's  sword  "  ; — 
this  opened  a  way  for  the  appreciation  of  distinctions  in 
the  God-head,  i.e.  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  and  of  the  work 


80  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

and  mission  of  the  Second  and  Third  Persons  in  It. 
(Fairweather,  B.  G.,  p.  342.) 

(ii.)  In  its  treatment  of  the  problem  of  innocence  and 
suffering  it  prepared  the  way  for  the  acceptance  of  the 
sufferings  of  the  Messiah,  and  the  teaching  of  Christ 
on  the  subject. 

(iii.)  The  identification  of  Wisdom  with  the  Law 
raised  another  protecting  screen  under  which  the  study, 
preservation,  and  transmission  of  Jewish  teaching  were 
made  more  secure  and  certain,  especially  as  the  subject 
matter  for  the  education  of  the  young  amongst  the 
Dispersion. 

For  the  shortcomings  and  failure  of  Wisdom  to 
supply  man's  need,  see  Westcott,  pp.  82,  83. 

Parallel  to  the  conception  of  Wisdom  is  that  of  the 
Logos.  This  is  a  Greek  word,  meaning  both  word  or 
speech,  and  the  thought  or  reason  of  which  speech  is 
the  expression.  It  can  trace  its  use  to  both  Jewish 
and  Greek  sources,  and  was  therefore  a  natural  idea  for 
the  Alexandrian  thinkers  to  adopt  and  develop. 

In  the  Old  Testament  it  appears  as  the  "  Word  of 
Jehovah,"  as  when  the  creation  is  ascribed  to  an  expressed 
command,  i.e.  a  word,  of  God  (Gen.  1,  2  ;  and  this  word 
is  poetically  personified  in  Pss.  33^,  IO720,  U7^5) ;  and 
when  the  prophets  speak  of  the  *'  Word  of  Jehovah  " 
coming  unto  them  in  inspiration  and  mission.  In  the 
Targums  "  Word "  is  largely  used  of  God  when  He 
reveals  Himself  and  makes  His  will  known.  Thus  it 
is  parallel  also  to  such  expressions  as  *'  Arjgel  of  Jehovah," 


HELLENISM  AND  THE  DISPERSION       81 

*'  Glory  or  Shekhinah  of  Jehovah,"  "  Name  of  Jehovah," 
which  at  least  suggested  the  possibility  of  distinctions 
in  the  God-head. 

It  is,  again,  remarkable  that  the  same  expression  is 
found  in  Greek  philosophy,  and  can  be  traced  back  as 
far  as  HeracHtus  (b.c.  500)  ;  and  it  formed  part  of  the 
teaching  of  Plato,  and  especially  the  Stoics,  and  echoes 
of  it  are  found  in  Pindar  and  Euripides.  Naturally 
enough,  it  was  familiar  to  the  men  of  Alexandria,  and 
Philo  found  in  it  another  convenient  link  for  uniting 
Judaism  and  Hellenism. 

But  we  must  be  careful  to  remember  that  the  Greek 
Logos  was  not  at  all  the  same  as  the  Hebrew  "  Word '' ; 
it  expressed  rather  the  rational  principle  underlying  the 
universe,  the  reason  and  thought  of  the  deity,  by 
which  he  was  apprehended  by  human  reason  and 
thought. 

The  language  of  Philo  is  very  striking,  though  decep- 
tive. He  calls  the  Logos  "  image  of  God,"  "  eldest  son," 
"first-born,"  and  "only-begotten,"  "intercessor," 
"  high-priest,"  "  instrument  of  creation,"  "  Paraclete," 
"  king  of  peace  "  ;  and  it  is  easy  to  see  how  much  his 
teaching  may  have  influenced  St.  John  and  the  writer 
of  Hebrews  (especially  first  chapter  of  both  ;  also  Col.  i. ; 
of.  Sir.  4326) ;  his  influence  on  the  early  Church  also  was 
very  great.  But  the  Logos  of  Philo,  again,  is  not  the 
"  Word  "  of  St.  John,  and  the  resemblance  is  mainly 
verbal ;  and  although  in  this  Alexandrian  thought  un- 
doubtedly paved  the  way,  the  Christian  idea  of  the 
Logos  was  a  distinct  and  differing  development  from  it. 

In  Philo  it  is  difficult  to  know  just  what  he  does 


82         THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

mean  ;  for  at  one  time  the  Logos  is  personified,  at  another 
it  is  merely  an  aspect  of  God's  power  at  work  in  the 
world.  Moreover,  to  Philo,  God  could  be  known  more 
clearly  by  intuition  and  mystic  ecstasy  than  through 
the  Logos  ;  and  he  has  no  room  in  his  scheme  of  things 
for  an  Incarnation  or  a  Redeemer.  (Westcott,  pp.  80, 
151  ;  Edersheim,  I,,  pp.  46,  49,  56 ;  Fairweather, 
B.  G.,  p.  350  ff.  ;  Estlin  Carpenter,  ''  Comparat.  ReL," 
p.  47  ;  Oesterley,  p.  61  ;  Schiirer,  II.,  iii.,  p.  363  fE.) 

Gathering  up  the  threads  of  what  has  gone  before, 
we  may  say  that  the  Dispersion  and  the  Hellenic  influence 
generally  had  an  undoubted,  and  powerful,  and  in- 
valuable effect  on  Jewish  thought,  in  weaning  it  from 
a  narrow  nationalism  to  a  true  Catholicism,  and  a 
Catholicism  of  thought  and  idea  as  well  as  of  rehgious 
ideals  ;  all  men  had  their  knowledge  of  God,  if  limited, 
if  perverted  ;  and  while  God's  blessings  were  for  all 
men  ahke,  so  had  all  races  something  to  contribute  to 
the  knowledge  and  spiritual  welfare  of  the  whole.  (Cf. 
Rev.  2124 ;  Fairweather,  B.  G.,  p.  315  ff.) 

Particularly  was  this  the  case  at  iVlexandria,  now 
the  centre  of  civilisation  and  culture,  where  met  together 
the  three  forces  of  Greek  thought.  Eastern  mysticism, 
and  Jewish  rehgion.  There  the  Jews  received  ideas  of 
freedom,  which  softened  their  unduly  rigid  and  legahstic 
and  conservative  spirit ;  and  of  philosophy  and  specula- 
tion, which  opened  out  new  avenues  of  thought  beyond 
the  simple  record  of  the  dealings  of  Jehovah  with  His 
people  and  the  Decalogue  ;  there  the  religion  of  humanity 
and   toleration   and    sympathy   for   all   overcame   the 


HELLENISM  AND  THE  DISPERSION        83 

narrow  barriers  of  race  which  underlay  traditional 
Judaism. 

The  use  of  the  Greek  language,  of  Greek  names  and 
habits  and  dress  ;  the  study  of  Greek  literature,  attend- 
ance in  the  schools  of  Greek  philosophers,  became  the 
normal  practice  for  the  keener  intellects  among  the 
Alexandrian  Jews,  and  even  in  Palestine,  especially 
under  the  stimulus  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  (see  above, 
pp.  51,  66).  The  Jews  in  Asia  Minor  would  catch  the  pre- 
vaihng  infection ;  and,  while  adhering  stubbornly  to 
the  faith  of  their  fathers,  they  unconsciously  shed  some 
of  its  more  uncompromising  features,  and  became  more 
cosmopolitan,  more  tolerant  and  sympathetic,  more 
cathoHc.  And  while  giving  to  the  Greek  a  reHgious 
conception  of  the  world,  they  received  from  him  the 
thoughts  and  the  words  necessary  to  give  it  scientific 
expression.  (Oesterley,  "  Books  of  the  Apocrypha," 
chaps,  i.-iv.  ;  Schiirer,  IL,  i.,  p.  1  ff.) 

Traces  of  the  influence  of  Greek  manners  and  Jewish 
life  may  be  found  in  the  Apocrypha.  Thus  Sir.  9^ 
warns  his  readers  against  the  company  of  professional 
singers  ;  and  in  32^  if.  alludes  to  banquets  with  musical 
accompaniments,  and  compares  them  to  gems  and 
jewels  ;  in  3827  he  mentions  engravers  of  signets,  and  in 
38 ^~s  we  have  the  famous  praise  of  physicians.  The 
"  Book  of  Wisdom  "  bears  many  traces  of  Greek  influence, 
and  is  a  fine  example  of  Hellenistic  literature.  (Fair- 
weather,  B.  G.,  p.  337.) 

And  in  the  New  Testament  we  have  a  mention  of  the 
"  Grecian  Jews  "  whose  widows  were  neglected  in  the 
daily  distribution  of  food  (Acts  6^  f!.) ;  and  the  story  of 


84  THE  CBADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

St.  Stephen's  martyrdom  illustrates  the  liberal  tendencies 
of  Hellenistic  Judaism,  and  its  divergence  from  the 
orthodoxy  of  the  Rabbis. 

This  tendency  was  also  fostered  by  the  Synagogue 
system  (see  p.  104),  a  natural  growth  when  worship 
at  the  Temple  of  Jerusalem  was  no  longer  possible  ; 
for  a  place  of  worship  was  thus  available  for  a  Jew 
wherever  he  might  go,  and  his  religion  was  thus  not 
tied  down  to  any  one  time  or  place  (contrast  Deut. 
]2-"'^  etc.);  and  also  by  the  admission,  if  grudging,  of 
proselytes  into  the  Jewish  community,  by  which  non- 
Jews  were  granted,  nominally,  at  all  events,  the  same 
privileges  as  the  seed  of  Abraham.  (Fairweather, 
E.  A.,  pp.  90,  95,  110;  Fairweather,  B.  G.,  p. 
26  n.) 

And  this  widening  tendency  was  accompanied  also 
by  a  spiritualising  of  ideals.  The  Exile,  and  then  the 
Diaspora,  weakened  the  national  and  material  ideal  ; 
the  loss  of  their  familiar  symbols  of  religion,  the  Ark,  the 
Temple,  and  the  Temple  worship  ;  the  growth  of  a 
simpler,  less  material  worship  in  the  synagogues,  deepened 
the  spiritual  instinct.  The  teaching  uttered  by  Ezekiel 
in  Chaldea  became  fruitful  in  a  truer  conception  of  the 
inwardness  of  religion,  and  Persian  influences  en- 
couraged their  detachment  from  earthly  notions  ;  perse- 
cution and  suffering  quickened  their  sense  of  the  power 
of  prayer,  and  turned  their  hopes  to  a  new  age,  a  new 
sphere  of  existence,  a  new  heaven  and  earth,  where  the 
inequalities  and  limitations  of  this  earth  should  be 
removed  and  set  right ;  the  mingling  among  the  nations 
changed  the  dividing  line  from  between  Jew  and  Gentile 


HELLENISM  AND  THE  DISPERSION         85 

to  between  godly  and  ungodly  ;  an  ethical  test  took  the 
place  of  national.  (Westcott,  pp.  54,  57  ;  Fairweather, 
E.  A.,  pp.  15,  29,  57.) 

With  the  change  from  national  to  spiritual  ideals 
came  the  spiritualised  form  of  the  old  teaching  about 
a  people  of  God,  so  that  the  ideal  became  that  of  a 
theocracy,  a  Divine,  spiritual  kingdom ;  a  stepping-stone 
to  that  of  the  Christian  Ecclesia  or  Church,  a  Idngdom 
"  in  the  world  though  not  of  the  world,"  whose  ruler 
was  God  Himself.  (Fairweather,  B.  G.,  p.  21  ff.  ; 
Jos.,  C.  Apion,  2.  17.) 

Finally,  the  break-up  of  the  nation,  and  life  in  alien 
countries  brought  to  the  front  the  importance  of  the 
individual,  Jeremiah  had  asserted  that  the  essence 
of  true  religion  lay  in  personal  communion  with  God, 
and  Ezekiel  had  grandly  upheld  the  truth  of  personal 
responsibility ;  in  Egypt,  Chaldea,  and  Greece  were 
found  habits  and  institutions  all  based  upon  the  same 
truth,  such  as  the  consultation  of  priests,  and  astrologers, 
the  study  of  philosophy,  and  the  formation  of  select 
guilds  and  societies  ;  and  in  the  Psalms  we  have  some 
of  probably  the  highest  expressions  of  personal  devotion 
known  to  man,  the  fruit  of  Jewish  experience  under  the 
hand  of  God's  discipline. 

Moreover,  Greek  institutions  and  principles  of 
government  were  based  largely  upon  the  conception 
of  the  rights  of  the  individual ;  and  this  gave  to  the 
Jews  a  fresh  notion  of  the  human  personality  together 
with  the  opportunity  for  developing  its  powers  and 
privileges.  They  came  to  realise  that  the  community 
comes   to  its  best  and  fullest  with  the  full  and  free 


86  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

development  of  the  members  wlio  compose  it,  and  that 
each  member,  be  he  member  of  the  state,  t.e.  citizen, 
or  of  a  religious  body,  has  both  rights  to  exercise 
and  responsibilities  to  bear,  as  well  as  privileges  to 
enjoy.  (Jer.  4^,  I710,  3129,  33  ff.^  3240  ;  Ezek.,  especially 
chap.  33 ;  Fairweather,  B.  G.,  p.  30  ^. ;  Oesterley, 
pp.  18,  31.) 


CHAPTER  V 

THE   APOCALYPTIC    LITERATURE 

(7  have  not  quoted  in  full  here  from  the  Old  Testament 
or  New  Testament,  as  they  can  he  easilij  referred  to,  and 
in  order  to  save  space.) 

Allusion  has  been  made  to  the  closing  and  formation 
of  the  Canon,  and  the  beginnings  of  the  study  and  inter- 
pretation of  the  Law  made  under  Ezra,  and  the  growth 
of  the  order  of  Scribes,  who  made  it  their  business  to 
interpret  and  apply  the  Scriptures.  They  could  do 
much  for  the  guidance  of  the  people,  especially  towards 
forming  regular  habits  of  life  and  rules  of  religious 
exercise.  But  more  was  wanted.  The  order  of  Prophets 
had  ceased,  and  a  living  voice  was  wanted ;  there  was 
"  a  famine  of  hearing  the  words  of  the  Lord  "  ;  "we 
see  not  our  signs  ;  there  is  no  more  any  prophet ;  neither 
is  there  among  us  any  that  knoweth  how  long."  (Ps. 
74^.)  The  teaching  of  the  Scribes  tended  rather  to 
negative  conclusions ;  it  was  timid  and  narrowing ; 
it  could  not  inspire  and  guide,  and  master  changing 
circumstances  and  present-day  problems ;  it  was 
academic  and  grandmotherly,  bred  of  the  cloister  and 
not  of  the  battlefield  of  life. 


88  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

Particularly  in  the  times  of  oppression,  as  in  the  days 
of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  and  under  Roman  dominion, 
and  when  the  country  was  torn  by  civil  war  and  faction, 
the  question  was  always  being  asked,  "  WTiere  are  the 
ancient  promises,"  "  AVhy  does  God  delay  His  venge- 
ance," "  How  long  are  the  righteous  to  suffer  "  ?  And 
in  answer  the  Scribes  would  turn  to  the  ancient  prophets, 
where  they  found  plenty  of  idealised  visions  of  a  bright 
and  triumphant  future  as  yet  unfulfilled.  These  they 
allegorised,  and  by  a  free  use  of  their  material  con- 
structed a  forecast  of  what  the  faithful  were  to  expect. 

Thus  to  a  certain  extent  they  supplied  the  need  of 
the  times  ;  but  something  free  and  more  vigorous  was 
wanted,  and  the  bolder  spirits  and  the  more  lofty 
religious  genius  of  the  nation  evolved  it ;  and  from  this 
allegorising  and  symbolising  tendency  sprang  the 
apocalyptic  movement,  which  satisfied  the  highest 
aspirations,  and  exercised  a  widespread  influence. 

The  word  "  apocalypse  "  means  a  reveahng,  an  un- 
veiling, and  the  apocalyptic  writings  purport  to  be  a 
Divine  revelation  of  the  Divine  plan,  and  of  the  events 
of  the  future.  Apocalypse  was  the  legitimate  successor 
of  prophecy,  as  the  instructor  of  the  people,  and  the 
development  of  certain  tendencies  already  evident  in  the 
Old  Testament.  (Westcott,  p.  73  note.)  And  its  authors 
claimed  the  authority  of  the  great  prophets,  and  the 
various  writings  were  issued  in  their  names,  a  literary 
device  indefensible  to  our  modern  ideas,  but  not  sug- 
gesting to  them  any  dishonesty  ;  rather  it  was  meritorious 
to  support  your  own  deepest  convictions  by  the  use  of  a 
great  name,   than  risk  their  failure  to  comfort  and 


THE  APOCALYPTIC  LITERATURE         89 

encourage  at  a  time  when  no  one  teacher  could  claim  to 
be  a  leader  and  prophet.  And  the  authors  cared  not  so 
much  for  their  own  names  and  reputations,  as  for  the 
truths  that  they  felt  bound  to  utter  for  the  good  of  their 
fellows.  These  truths  are  also  often  the  development  of 
Old  Testament  teaching,  hence  some  right  to  claim 
support  of  a  great  prophet's  name. 

In  the  Apocalypse  the  freest  rein  is  given  to  the  imagi- 
nation, and  the  teaching  conveyed  in  parables,  symbols, 
and  visions  ;  these  were  rendered  necessary  often  by 
the  fact  that  oppressors  and  great  people  could  not  be 
mentioned  safely  by  name  ;  and  they  appealed  to  the 
oriental  love  of  imagery.  The  object  of  the  writings  is 
to  console  those  who  are  suffering  in  hard  times,  both  as 
a  nation  and  as  individuals  ;  to  encourage  bright  hopes 
of  the  future  ;  and  to  strengthen  faith  in  God's  power 
and  goodness.  ("  Tracts  for  bad  times.")  Certain 
definite  ideas  and  conceptions  appear,  of  the  form  which 
events  will  take  in  the  future,  and  the  deliverance 
come.  The  writings  are  to  be  ascribed  to  no  one 
particular  party  or  sect,  but  are  more  likely  the  fruit 
of  a  spontaneous  outburst  of  popular  religious  feeling  ; 
they  are  essentially  popular  in  form  and  manner. 

Traces  of  this  movement  are  found,  as  has  been 
said,  in  the  Old  Testament,  most  noticeably  in  the  Book 
of  Daniel.  See  especially  c.  7  ff. ;  Zech.  14  ;  Joel.  2^~^^, 
22-31 ;  Isa.  24. 

This  tendency  to  speak  in  visions  and  to  announce  an 
idealised  future  had  been  strongly  encouraged  by 
Ezekiel  and  the  Second  Isaiah ;  and  when  national  events 


90  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

rendered  the  restoration  of  the  Davidic  kingdom  and 
material  welfare  less  and  less  likely,  this  was  indeed  the 
only  form  that  the  hope  could  take.  Consequently,  in 
the  extra-canonical  apocalyptic  writings  we  notice  these 
important  changes  from  the  teaching  of  the  prophets, 
that  the  ideal  is  no  longer  to  be  realised  in  this  world  ; 
that  it  includes  all  nations  and  peoples  and  not  Israel 
alone ;  the  judgment  will  proceed  also  on  moral  lines, 
not  only  on  the  question  of  nationality.  The  oppressions 
at  the  hands  of  the  heathen,  however,  had  been  so 
severe  that  the  Gentiles  are  almost  invariably  doomed 
to  damnation  ;  one  misses  the  sympathetic  references 
to  them  of  2  Isaiah  ;  and  the  philosophy  of  history 
evoked  by  the  wider  conception  of  the  Divine  supremacy 
took  the  form  of  a  determinism,  in  which  the  whole 
course  of  human  history  was  considered  as  fore- ordained 
and  mapped  out,  and  its  progress  merely  a  matter  of 
time,  rather  than  of  human  co-operation. 

Let  us  now  look  at  one  or  two  typical  passages  of 
these  writings,  so  popular  and  so  influential  in  the 
two  centuries  B.C.,  and  reflected  so  much  in  part  of 
our  Lord's  teaching,  and  other  parts  of  the  New 
Testament. 

Enoch  13  ff. :  (second  century  B.C.). 
The    Holy    Great    One    will    come    forth    from    His 

dwelling, 
And   the    Eternal    God    will    tread    upon    the    earth, 

even  on  Mount  Sinai, 
And   appear  in  the  strength  of  His  might  from  the 

heaven  of  heavens. 


THE  APOCALYPTIC  LITERATURE        91 

And  all  shall  be  smitten  with  fear, 
And  the  Watchers  shall  quake, 

And  great  fear  and  trembling  shall  seize  them  unto  the 
ends  of  the  earth. 


And  the  high  mountains  shall  be  shaken, 
And  the  high  hills  shall  be  made  low. 
And  shall  melt  like  wax  before  the  flame. 

And  the  earth  shall  be  wholly  rent  in  sunder, 
And  all  that  is  upon  the  earth  shall  perish, 
And  there  shall  be  a  judgment  upon  all  men. 

But  with  the  righteous  He  will  make  peace, 

And  will  protect  the  elect, 

And  mercy  shall  be  upon  them.  ^ 

And  they  shall  all  belong  to  God, 
And  they  shall  be  prospered, 
And  they  shall  all  be  blessed. 

And  He  will  help  them  all. 

And  light  shall  appear  unto  them. 

And  He  will  make  peace  with  them. 

And  behold !    He  cometh  with  ten  thousands  of  His 

holy  ones  (cf .  Jude  i^) 
To  execute  judgment  upon  all. 
And  to  destroy  all  the  ungodly  : 


92  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

Aiid  to  convict  all  flesh 

Of  all  the  works  of  their  ungodliness  which  they  have 

ungodly  committed, 
And  of  all  the  hard  things  which  ungodly  sinners  have 

spoken  against  Him." 

625  fp. 
"  And  one  portion  of  them  shall  look  on  the  other, 
And  they  shall  be  terrified, 
And  they  shall  be  downcast  of  countenance, 
And  pain  shall  seize  them, 
When  they  see  that  Son  of  Man 
Sitting  on  the  throne  of  His  glory. 

•  ••••• 

And  He  will  deliver  them  to  the  angels  for  punishment, 
To  execute   vengeance   on   them   because   they   have 

oppressed  His  children  and  His  elect. 
And  they  shall  be  a  spectacle  for  the  righteous  and  for 

His  elect :  (cf.  Cor.  4^) 
They  shall  rejoice  over  them, 
Because  the  wrath  of  the  Lord  of  Spirits  resteth  upon 

them, 
And  His  sword  is  drunk  with  their  blood. 

And  the  righteous  and  elect  shall  be  saved  on  that 

day, 
And  they  shall  never  thenceforward  see  the  face  of  the 

sinners  and  unrighteous. 

And  the  Lord  of  Spirits  will  abide  over  them, 
And  with  that  Son  of  Man  shall  they  eat. 
And  lie  down  and  rise  up  for  ever  and  ever.'! 


THE  APOCALYPTIC  LITERATURE  93 

9028  ff.  (A  vision  of  the  new  Jerusalem,  the  conversion 
and  submission  of  the  Gentiles,  and  the  Messiah.) 

"  And  I  saw  till  the  Lord  of  the  sheep  brought  a  new 
house  greater  and  loftier  than  that  first,  and  set  it  up  in 
the  place  of  the  first  which  had  been  folded  up  :  all  its 
pillars  were  new,  and  its  ornaments  were  new  and  larger 
than  those  of  the  first.  .  .  . 

"  And  I  saw  all  the  sheep  which  had  been  left,  and 
all  the  beasts  on  the  earth,  and  all  the  birds  of  the 
heaven,  falling  down  and  doing  homage  to  those  sheep 
and  making  petition  to  and  obeying  them  in  every 
thing.  .  .  . 

"  And  I  saw  that  a  white  bull  was  born,  with  larse 
horns,  and  all  the  beasts  of  the  field  and  all  the  birds  of 
the  air  feared  him  and  made  petition  to  him  all  the 
time." 

Here  is  a  passage  from  the  Sibylline  Oracles,  3^^^  fF. 
(second  century  B.C.)  : 

"  He  will  raise  up  His  kingdom  for  all  ages  over  men, 
He  who  once  gave  a  holy  law  to  godly  men,  to  all  of 
whom  He  promised  to  open  out  the  earth  and  the  world 
and  the  portals  of  the  blessed  and  all  joys  and  everlasting 
sense  and  eternal  gladness.  .   .  . 

.  .  .  When  swords  in  the  star-Ht  heaven  appear  by 
night  towards  dusk  and  towards  dawn,  and  straightway 
dust  is  carried  from  heaven  to  earth,  and  all  the  brightness 
of  the  sun  fails  at  midday  from  the  heavens,  and  the 
moon's  rays  shine  forth  and  come  back  to  earth,  and  a 
sign  comes  from  the  rocks  with  dripping  streams  of 
blood  :   and  in  a  cloud  ye  shall  see  a  battle  of  foot  and 


94  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

horse,  as  a  hunt  of  wild  beasts,  like  unto  misty  clouds. 
This  is  the  consummation  of  war  which  God,  Whose 
dwelling  is  in  heaven,  is  bringing  to  pass. 

Cf.  Sibyll.  4130  ff.,  "  When  a  firebrand  starting  from 
a  deep  cavern  in  the  land  of  Italy  shall  reach  the  broad 
heaven,  and  burn  many  a  city  and  consume  its  men, 
and  clouds  of  sooty  ashes  beset  the  great  heaven,  and 
grains  fall  from  the  sky  like  red  earth,  then  recognise 
the  wrath  of  the  God  of  heaven."  (Refers  to  eruption 
of  Vesuvius.)    Also  3^1  if.,  is^  ff.,  669  f^.,  796  fi.^   4175^ 

5342  if.,  512. 

Ass.  Moses  10^  if. : 
And  the  earth  shall  tremble  :   to  its  confines  shall  it  be 

shaken  : 
And  the  high  mountains  shall  be  made  low 
And  the  hills  shall  be  shaken  and  fall. 
And   the  horns  of  the  sun  shall   be   broken  and  he 

shall  be  turned  into  darkness  ; 
And  the  moon  shall  not  give  her  light,  and  be  turned 

wholly  into  blood. 
And  the  circle  of  the  stars  shall  be  disturbed. 
And  the  sea  shall  retire  into  the  abyss, 
And  the  fountains  of  waters  shall  fail. 
And  the  rivers  shall  dry  up." 

Cf.  also  Enoch  946  ;  2  Bar.  27,  4831  ff.,  702  fi. ; 
4  Ezra  5,  1317,  9^,  620,  863  ;  Apoc.  Noah  80^  ;  Jub.  23^2 
fi.,  3610  ;  2  Mace.  52. 

Cf.  also  4  Ezra  726,  n^  12,  13  (Apocrypha) ;  T. 
Jos.  19  ;  Ass.  Moses  (first  century  a.d.)  10 ;  2  Baruch 
(first,  century  a.d.)  39. 


THE  APOCALYPTIC  LITERATURE         95 

Let  us  now  summarise  and  illustrate  some  of  the 
leading  ideas  in  these  apocalyptic  writings,  and  it  will 
be  evident  at  once  how  they  are  both  a  development 
of  Old  Testament  thought,  and  the  source  of  much  in 
the  New. 

In  the  first  place  notice  that  the  writers  have  a 
much  wider  and  more  detached  view  of  things  than  those 
of  earlier  days.  Their  dealings  with  and  successive 
subjection  to  the  great  world-powers  taught  them  to 
view  history  broadly  and  comprehensively  ;  it  was  now 
something  far  grander  and  more  complicated  than  the 
jealous  care  of  a  tribal  deity  for  his  chosen  people. 
Their  sufferings  in  this  world  made  them  despair  utterly 
of  it,  and  made  them  look  to  an  "  age  to  come,"  which 
should  be  as  happy  and  as  essentially  good,  as  ''  this 
world  "  was  hopeless  and  essentially  evil. 

Compare,  e.g.,  4  Ezra  i-^,  "  The  world  haste th 
fast  to  pass  away.  For  it  is  not  able  to  bear  the 
things  that  are  promised  to  the  righteous  in  the 
times  to  come  ;  for  this  world  is  full  of  sadness  and 
infirmities." 

S-'^^  :  "  Unto  you  is  paradise  opened,  the  tree  of  life 
is  planted,  the  time  to  come  is  prepared,  plenteous- 
ness  is  made  ready,  a  city  is  builded,  rest  is  allowed, 
goodness  is  perfected,  wisdom  being  perfect  aforehand. 
The  root  of  evil  is  sealed  up  from  you,  weakness  is 
done  away  from  you,  and  death  is  hidden ;  hell  and 
corruption  are  fled  into  forgetfulness :  sorrows  are 
passed  away,  and  in  the  end  is  shown  the  treasure  of 
immortality.'' 


96         THE  CEADLE  OF  CHEISTIANITY 

In  the  New  Testament  we  have  mention  of  the 
*'  Children  of  this  world  "  (Lk.  20^4) ;  those  who  have 
left  all  for  Christ's  sake  and  the  gospel's,  are  to  receive 
much  more  in  this  world,  and  in  the  world  to  come 
eternal  life  (Lk.  IS^O).  St.  Paul  says  that  "  the  fashion 
of  this  world  passeth  away  "  (1  Cor.  73^) ;  2  Pet.  3io 
describes  the  destruction  of  it ;  and  St.  John  habitually 
contrasts  the  "  world  "  with  the  kingdom  of  God. 

History  not  only  embraced  the  whole  earth  ;  and 
man's  destiny,  and  in  particular  that  of  the  chosen 
people,  was  not  only  limited  to  this  life  ;  but  there 
were  other  powers  at  work  besides  God  Himself.  Under 
Persian  influence  had  grown  up  a  wide  belief  in  the 
existence  of  angels  and  spirits,  both  good  and  bad  ; 
some  of  these  had  their  due  mission  and  place  in  the 
order  of  the  universe  ;  cf.  the  angels  of  the  winds, 
clouds,  darkness,  hail,  frost,  fire,  the  seasons,  day  and 
night,  etc.  (Jub.  2^,  cf.  Ps.  104.)  Others  had  higher 
rank,  such  as  the  Angel  of  Jehovah  (Old  Testament), 
the  Angel  of  the  Presence  (Isa.  63^  ;  Jub.  2^)  ;  and  the 
angels  who  spoke  with  the  seers  of  the  apocalyptic 
visions,  many  of  whom  are  named,  e.g.  Raphael,  Uriel, 
Gabriel,  Michael,  etc.  National  guardian  angels  (Dan. 
1013,  20)  are  also  alluded  to. 

But  there  were  evil  angels  as  well,  who  had  rebelled 
against  the  Most  High,  and  had  lost  their  places  in  the 
heavenly  order.  To  them  was  ascribed  the  origin  of 
evil  in  the  world,  and  so  this  world  became  the  natural 
sphere  for  their  evil  energies,  and  therefore  hopeless 
and  worthless  for  man.    In  Enoch  69^  their  chiefs  are 


THE  APOCALYPTIC  LITERATURE  97 

mentioned,  and  their  leader  is  Azazel,  identified  with 
Beliar  and  Satan  (Lev.  16^).  Thus  grows  up  the  idea 
of  a  personal  devil,  who  makes  it  his  business  to  perse- 
cute and  to  tempt  the  Saints  of  the  Most  High.  (Dan. 
10^3  )  iji  the  Old  Testament  Satan  is  a  kind  of  informer, 
who  accuses  men  to  God  (see  Job  1^ ;  Zech.  3^ ;  Rev. 
12^°) ;  here  he  is  God's  rival  and  opponent. 

Consequently  there  grew  up  what  is  known  as  a 
dualistic  idea  of  the  world,  which  represents  it  as  the 
battlefield  of  two  contending  forces,  good  and  evil, 
neither  for  the  present  able  to  subdue  the  other,  but 
each  force  predominating  in  turn.  The  material 
conception  had  given  place  to  the  spiritual,  the  natural 
to  the  supernatural.  The  conflict  is  already  noticed 
in  the  Old  Testament,  and  the  victory  ultimately 
assured    to    God    and    His    Saints.     (Cf.    Dan.    10^^^ 

718^  27  \ 

The  idea  grew  and  developed  largely  under  Persian 
influence,  in  whose  theology  the  two  powers  of  good  and 
evil,  light  and  darkness,  Ormazd  and  Ahriman,  with 
the  final  victory  of  good  over  evil,  held  a  leading  place. 
And  it  finds  ample  expression  in  apocalyptic  writings. 

T.  Zeb.  9^,  "  redeem  all  the  captivity  of  the  sons  of 
men  from  Beliar."     (Cf.  T.  Dan.  5i^.) 

Jub.  2329,  "  No  Satan  nor  any  evil  destroyer." 

Enoch  54^,  "  Michael  and  Gabriel  and  Raphael  and 
Phanuel  shall  take  hold  of  them  on  that  day,  and  cast 
them  on  that  day  into  the  burning  furnace,  that  the 
Lord  of  Spirits  may  take  vengeance  on  them  for  their 
unrighteousness  in  becoming  subject  to  Satan  and 
leading  astray  those  who  dwell    on   the   earth "    (i.e. 

G 


98  THE  CKADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

the  hosts  of  Azazel).    (T.  Dau.  36,  5^  ff.,  6^ ;  T.  Gad.  4^  ; 
T.  Asher  6*  ;  Ass.  Mos.  lO^.) 

Mart.  Isa.  2^,  "  The  angel  of  lawlessness,  who  is  the 
ruler  of  this  world,  is  Beliar."  (T.  Levi.  I812.  Fair- 
weather,  B.  G.,  pp.  48,  266,  271,  282,  295 ;  Oesterley, 
M.  I.,  ch.  13.) 

The  influence  of  this  strain  of  thought  on  the  New 
Testament  is  evident  at  once  from  our  Lord's  words 
about  the  devil  and  his  angels,  Satan  and  his  kingdom, 
Satan  falling  from  heaven  as  lightning,  the  casting  out 
of  the  prince  of  this  world  (Lk.  ll^o,  IQis ;  Jn.  12^i). 
St.  John's  gospel  is  largely  coloured  by  this  duahsm ; 
the  Revelation,  especially  ch.  13,  naturally  has  many 
affinities  with  Jewish  apocalypse,  and  St.  Paul's  words 
in  2  Thess.  2,  of  the  Antichrist  all  derive  from  this 
source.     (Cf.  Eph.  22,  612.) 

The  final  conflict  and  victory  are  described  as  "  the 
Day  of  Jehovah,"  "that  day,"  "the  last  days,"  a  phrase 
found  in  the  Old  Testament.  (Cf.  Amos  51^ ;  Isa.  2-4  ; 
Joel  2;  Jer.  46^0;  Zeph.  V,  ^^ ;  Zech.  123,  13\  14^; 
Mai.  45.) 

In  the  Old  Testament  this  is  synonymous  with  the 
Messianic  or  Golden  age,  the  day  of  vengeance  on 
Israel's  enemies  and  of  unlimited  prosperity.  In 
apocalypse  it  covers  the  same  idea,  with  all  the  varying 
developments  of  it. 

Cf.  Enoch  10^2^  "  the  day  of  their  judgment  and  of 
their  consummation."    (16\  22^,  i3^  973^  loo^.) 


THE  APOCALYPTIC  LITERATURE  99 

AVisd.  318,  ''  day  of  decision.'^ 
(Oesterley,  L.  T.,  pp.  12,  20 ;  Oesterley,  M.  I.,  chaps. 
11,  12,  16.) 

This  day  is  regarded  variously  as  distant  or  im- 
minent ;  sometimes  the  times  are  so  unfavourable  that 
much  patience  is  counselled  until  the  divine  purposes 
shall  ripen,  and  the  power  of  evil  shall  have  spent 
itself ;  sometimes  things  are  so  bad  that  the  writers 
feel  that  the  end  cannot  be  far  off.  (Cf .  Isa.  26^0  ;  Dan. 
725^  124,  6^  T,  0  i!.) 

Some  writers  hold  that  the  order  of  all  things  is 
predetermined  and  flxed,  and  the  whole  course  of  history 
is  mapped  out  by  them  into  periods.  (4  Ezra  4^6  (note)  ; 
Ezek.  46 ;  Dan  924,  Ipo,  127,  n,  92  .  Enoch  90^,  ^ 
93,  9112-17  (10  weeks) ;  Sibyll.  4^7,  3  (generations) ; 
2  Baruch  21\  53  (12  clouds) ;  4  Ezra  730,  43^  1411  (12 
periods) ;  T.  Levi  17 ^^  (7  weeks) ;  Ass.  Mos.  10^2  (world 
lasts  4250  years)  ;  Enoch  (world  lasts  10,000  years)  ; 
Enoch,  Slavonic  (world  lasts  7000  years).) 

For  this  compare  Rev.  5  (7  seals),  20^ ;  Mt.  24^0  ; 
Mk.  1332  ;  1  Cor.  1523  ft, ;  2  Thess.  23  ;  4  Ezra  1139,  44, 
1411.  (Cf.,  too,  Rom.  1311, 1  and  2  Thess  ;  Lk.  I911 ;  Mk. 
1332,  91 ;  Mt.  1628,  2434,  1023  ;  2  Tim.  48,  I12,  I8  ;  1  Cor. 
313.)    (Fairweather,  B.  G.,  p.  296  if.) 

The  end,  the  day  of  Jehovah,  the  coming  of  the 
Messiah,  is  to  be  preceded  by  signs  and  wonders,  and  above 
all  by  great  suffering  and  tribulation.  This  is  found  in  the 
Old  Testament :  e.g.  Amos  516-I8,  20  ;  iga.  136  ff.,  243  fp.^ 
19,  23  ;  Zeph.  114  ;  Joel  21  ff.,  230,  315  ;  Dan.  12i. 


100         THE  CRADLE  OF  CHBISTIANITY 

For  parallels  to  this  in  New  Testament :  cf.  x\cts  2^' ; 
Mt.  243-31  ;  2  Pet.  38  ff.  (Fairweather,  B.  G.,  p. 
267  ;  Hastings,  i.,  p.  748a  ;  E.  Bibl.  1348,  1350  ff. ; 
Oesterley,  L.  T.,  pp.  14,  77.) 

WTien  the  end  comes  it  will  include  a  vast  summoning 
of  the  nations  of  the  world,  for  the  purpose  of  worshipping 
and  serving  Jehovah,  or  of  being  punished  and  destroyed, 
according  to  the  varying  ideas  of  the  writers.  Some,  like 
2  Isaiah,  looked  forward  to  their  sharing  in  the  great 
Kingdom  ;  others  like  the  writer  of  Isaiah  63^,  antici- 
pated their  destruction,  without  which  the  blessings  to 
Israel  could  not  be  realised.  (Cf.  pro-Gentile  ;  Isa.  2^, 
(Mic.  41),  1112,  6618  ;  Zech.  2io  ;  anti-Gentile  ;  Isa.  13, 
34  ;  Zeph.  3^  ;  Hag.  23i.) 

T.  Asher  73,  "  The  Most  High  .  .  .  shall  save  Israel 
and  all  the  Gentiles." 

T.  Levi  44,  "  The  Lord  shall  visit  all  the  Gentiles  in 
His  tender  mercies  for  ever." 

T.  Levi  189,  '^  xhe  Gentiles  shall  be  multiplied  in 
knowledge  upon  the  earth,  and  enlightened  through  the 
grace  of  the  Lord."     (Cf.  Enoch  502,  9030,  1021.) 

Jub.  2324,  "  The  sinners,  the  Gentiles." 

Jub.  2330,  "  They  shall  .  .  .  drive  out  their  adversaries 
.  .  .  and  shall  see  all  their  judgments  and  all  their  curses 
on  their  enemies." 

Ass.  Moses  10^,  "  The  Most  High  .  .  .  will  appear  to 
punish  the  Gentiles."  (Cf.  2  Bar.  722  g. ;  Enoch  37-70 ; 
4  Ezra  736,  13.) 

Of  this,  again,  are  echoes  found  in  the  New  Testament. 
Thus  the  world-kingdom  finds  its  place  in  the  Temptation 
of  Christ ;  and  while  national  ideals  have  given  place  to 


THE  APOCALYPTIC  LITERATUKE         101 

ethical,  the  destruction  of  the  ungodly  is  clearly  laid 
down  in  2  Thess.  1^.     (Oesterley,  L.  T.,  49,  106.) 

God  Himself  is  to  be  revealed  "  at  that  time,"  though 
in  the  later  books  in  the  person  of  His  Messiah.  (Amos 
517;  Isa.  2423,  6615;  Mai.  S^ ;  Mic.  13;  Zeph.  38; 
Zech.  213  ;  Enoch  13,  22  {see  p.  52  fi).) 

He  is  to  be  revealed  from  Heaven  with  His  heavenly 
hosts:  Deut.  332;  Dan.  T^O;  Enoch  P ;  Mt.  26^3; 
2  Thess.  V;  Jude  14;  1  Thess.  4^,  3i3 ;  Mk.  838; 
Mt.  1341. 

In  clouds  :  Isa.  19^ ;  Ps.  IS^o ;  Dan.  7^3  ;  4  Ezra 
133.  Mt.  2664;  1  Thess.  4^7 ;  Acts  P.  (Fairweather, 
B.  G.,  p.  296.) 

And  glory  :  Enoch  453  and  note. 

There  is  to  be  a  great  conflict :  (cf .  p.  97,  supra) ;  Ezek. 
3814-3916  ;  Zech.  Mi-n  ;  T.  Dan.  510  ;  T.  Reub.  612. 

And  a  judgment ;  {see  p.  57.  Fairweather,  B. 
G.,  272,  287,  293,  276;  Hastings,  i.,  p.  749a; 
E.  Bibl.  1356  ff.,  1343;  Oesterley,  L.  T.,  23,  28, 
86,  97.) 

Great  prosperity  and  blessings  will  follow  {see  p.  62 ; 
Oesterley,  L.  T.,  p.  101). 

The  scene  is  a  new  heaven  and  a  new  earth  {see  p.  63). 

Echoes  of  these  ideas  are  found  in  the  New  Testament ; 
conflict :  2  Thess.  28  ;  Rev.  12^,  19l^  208. 

Judgment :  Jude  14  ;  2  Thess.  18  ;  Jn.  I6I1, 1231,  52?  ; 
Mt.  2531,  1928, 189 .  1  Cor.  313,  45 ;  Lk.  2230. 

Prosperity ;  2  Thess.  1^  ;  Rev.  214,  22 ;  Mt.  1929, 
1343. 

New  heaven  and  earth  :  Rev.  21,  22  ;  2  Pet.  3. 

These  ideas  have  been  beautifully  and  grandly  used 


102         THE  CRADLE  OF  CHEISTIANITY 

and  worked  up  by  Milton  in  "  Paradise  Lost,"  and 
*'  Paradise  Regained." 

Notice  also  the  individual  aspect  of  the  "  last  times," 
i.e.  that  personal  as  well  as  collective  retribution  or 
reward  is  promised  ;  and  with  this  the  belief  in  a  resur- 
rection from  the  dead  and  a  personal  immortality. 

See  p.  83 ;  and  cf.  Enoch  104^,  "  your  names 
are  written  before  the  glory  of  the  Great  One  "  ;  2  Ezra 
7^0^,  "  then  every  one  shall  bear  his  own  righteousness 
or  imrighteousness." 

All  this  is  a  clear  preparation  for  the  teaching  of 
Christ,  although  it  varies  much  in  character  and  scope. 
Thus  some  books  assure  a  resurrection  only  to  the 
nation,  and  deny  it  to  the  Gentiles  ;  some  to  the  good 
only,  not  to  the  wicked.  But  whatever  the  details, 
the  idea  was  clearly  taught,  and  was  ready  to  receive 
the  fuller  revelation  made  by  Christ,  and  the  teaching 
of  the  New  Testament.  (Jn.  1124,  529,  q^o^  54  ;  i  Cor. 
15  ;  1  Thess.  4i3.) 

Summing  up  the  foregoing  remarks,  we  may  say  that 
apocalypse  certainly  paved  the  way  for  Christ  by  its 
idealism,  its  stubborn  faith  in  the  goodness  and  power 
of  God  and  the  righteous  ordering  of  the  world.  It 
kept  hope  alive,  under  the  most  hopeless  of  circumstances, 
and  continually  directed  the  eyes  of  the  people  forward 
and  upward.  It  maintained  that  God  had  a  definite 
purpose  for  the  world,  and  that  this  purpose  was  being 
worked  out,  even  if  slowly,  even  if  events  seemed  to 
contradict  and  disprove  it ;  and  that  good  would 
ultimately  prevail. 


THE  APOCALYPTIC  LITERATURE      103 

And  it  widened  the  conception  of  the  Messianic 
hope  ;  to  a  certain  extent  set  it  free  from  the  trammels 
of  nationalism  (though  events  were  always  tending  to 
narrow  it  down  again) ;  induced  a  more  catholic  atmo- 
sphere ;  and  encouraged  the  growth  of  a  fuller  belief  in 
the  supernatural  and  spiritual  world. 

It  also  helped  the  development  of  the  belief  in  a 
future  Hfe,  in  personal  responsibility,  in  a  judgment  and 
retribution.  It  provided  Christ  with  at  least  one 
definite  title,  Son  of  Man.  It  contributed  a  suggestion 
to  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  the  presence  of  evil  in 
the  world,  a  hypothesis  which  is  still  both  acceptable 
and  workable.  And  even  if  these  conceptions  needed 
the  purification  and  correction  and  closer  definition 
that  they  received  from  the  hands  of  Jesus  Christ,  their 
contribution  to  the  religious  beliefs  of  the  world  is  not 
to  be  despised.  (Especially  Fairweather,  B.  G.,  Ch.  6, 
7  ;  Hastings,  i.,  108  ff.,  742  if. ;  Ocsterley,  pp.  90  ff., 
198.) 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE    SYNAGOGUE — SECTS  AND   PARTIES 

The  Synagogue,  to  the  influence  of  which  allusion 
has  already  been  made,  was  a  very  ancient  institution, 
dating  from  and  a  necessity  of  the  period  subsequent 
to  the  Captivity.  AVhen  resident  in  a  foreign  land,  and 
with  the  Temple  in  ruins,  the  Jews  would  feel  more 
than  ever  the  need  of  worship  and  of  a  rallying  point  in 
the  sphere  of  rehgion.  Amid  the  sights  and  examples 
of  heathenism,  they  would  cling  still  more  closely  to 
their  Divine  Law.  And  there  naturally  grew  up  the 
practice  of  holding  meetings  for  common  worship  and 
instruction,  and  these  in  time  developed  into  the 
Synagogue  (the  word  is  Greek  for  "  meeting  "  or  "  con- 
gregation "  ;  cf.  "  the  Tent  of  meeting  "  (Exod.  33^, 
R.V.).  It  is  possible  that  these  are  alluded  to  in 
Ps.  74^  ;  and  wherever  Jews  lived,  in  or  out  of  Palestine, 
there  we  may  be  sure  that  a  Synagogue  was  soon 
established.  The  Hellenist  Jew  of  the  Dispersion  could 
only  hope  for  a  visit  to  the  Temple  once  or  twice  in 
a  lifetime,  and  the  peasants  of  Palestine  would  only 
go  for  the  great  feasts.  So  for  both  the  Synagogue 
provided  for  the  needs  of  everyday  life,  and  kept  ahve 
the  fire  of  religion.     Every  village  of  any  size  had  its 


THE  SYNAGOGUE-SECTS  AND  PARTIES    105 

Synagogue,  with  its  regular  procedure  and  ministry  ; 
and  in  the  large  towns  there  would  be  several,  some 
being  owned  by  large  families,  like  private  chapels, 
and  some  by  trade-guilds.  Some  were  owned  by 
Hellenists  (Acts  6^),  and  these  would  therefore  be  of 
more  hberal  tendencies. 

In  structure  they  somewhat  resembled  the  Temple, 
and  were  orientated  so  that  the  congregation  faced 
towards  Jerusalem  as  they  worshipped  (cf.  1  Kings 
829-38  ;  Ps.  5^,  1382  ;  Dan.  6io  ;  Jonah  2*).  At  the 
end  nearest  Jerusalem  was  an  ark  or  chest  containing 
the  sacred  books,  and  in  front  of  it  a  curtain,  like  the 
Veil  of  the  Temple.  Between  the  curtain  and  the 
congregation  was  a  platform,  and  round  it  the  ''  chief 
seats,"  like  the  "  set  fawr  "  in  a  Welsh  chapel,  coveted 
by  the  Scribes,  elders,  and  the  vulgar  rich,  and  reserved 
also  for  the  officials  (Mt.  23^  ;  Jas.  22  ;  and  cf.  Ps. 
107^2).  On  the  platform  was  a  seat  for  the  reader  or 
preacher,  and  a  desk  for  the  books.  The  congregation 
occupied  the  rest  of  the  building,  the  sexes  being 
separated. 

The  Sabbath  service  consisted  of  the  recitation  of  the 
Shema  (i.e.  Deut.  6^-9, 1113-21 ;  Num.  1537-41),  answer- 
ing somewhat  to  our  Creed.  This  was  followed  by 
prayer,  said  by  the  leader  alone,  the  congregation 
standing  and  saying  "  Amen "  at  the  close.  This 
prayer  was  part  of  a  regular  Liturgy,  and  may  be  read 
in  Edersheim,  I.,  p.  439.  Other  prayers  were  added 
at  discretion,  both  written  and  extempore.  Then  came 
the  reading  of  the  Law,  with  its  interpretation.  The 
Chazzan  (i.e.    "  Minister,"   Lk.   420),   corresponding   to 


106         THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

our  Parish  Clerk  or  Sexton,  brought  a  roll  out  of  the 
chest,  and  various  members  of  the  congregation  were 
summoned  to  read.  There  was  a  prescribed  Lectionary, 
and  a  lesson  from  the  Prophets  followed  that  from  the 
Law  (Lk.  1629;  Acts  l^^^,  1521);  and  the  Hebrew 
original  was  then  translated,  and  sometimes  para- 
phrased, into  Aramaic  by  the  Methurgeman  or  Inter- 
preter. This  translation  and  paraphrasing  is  alluded 
to  in  Neh.  8^,  and  later  it  developed  into  the  Targum. 
After  the  reading  came  a  Sermon,  delivered  by  a  Scribe, 
or  some  other  male  member  of  the  congregation  held 
to  be  competent.  (Cf.  Lk.  4i6  f!. ;  Acts  13i5.)  Ques- 
tions were  sometimes  asked,  and  objections  raised,  and 
answered ;  and  the  giving  of  a  blessing  concluded  the 
service.  Preaching,  it  may  be  added,  was  highly 
thought  of. 

The  management  of  the  Synagogue  was  essentially 
democratic,  and  the  ministers  officiated  by  leave  of 
the  "  rulers  of  the  Synagogue  "  (Lk.  1314  ;  Acts  1313 
— Jairus  was  one  of  these,  Mk.  522),  ^  kind  of  Church 
Council :  ordination  was  not  essential.  The  rulers  also 
had  charge  of  the  Synagogue  business  generally ,  and 
of  the  discipline  of  their  flock.  In  fact,  we  have  a  close 
parallel  to  the  Jewish  Synagogue  in  the  modern  Non- 
conformist Chapel.  (Also  in  the  Telugu  village  chapel. 
See  "  East  and  West,"  April,  1915,  pp.  211,  212.") 

It  is  clear  how  wonderfully  adapted  was  this  institu- 
tion to  the  Jewish  needs.  It  was  so  elastic,  and  so 
freed  from  the  restrictions  of  central  authority,  that 
worship  and  instruction  were  possible  under  all  circum- 
stances.   To  it  was  undoubtedly  due  the  persistence 


THE  SYNAGOGUE-SECTS  AND  PARTIES   107 

of  Judaism  and  the  preservation  of  religion  ;  it  ensured 
that  every  Jew  was  instructed  in  his  nation's  history 
and  ideals,  and  brought  at  some  time  or  other  within 
the  influence  of  spiritual  things.  As  Philo  points  out 
(V.  Mosis,  3.  27),  *'  Our  houses  of  prayer  in  the  several 
towns  are  none  other  than  institutions  for  teaching 
prudence  and  bravery,  self-control  and  justice,  piety 
and  holiness,  and  every  virtue  which  the  human  and 
the  Divine  recognise  and  enjoin."  (Cf.  Jos.,  C.  Apion, 
2.  18,  19,  quoted  above,  p.  38.) 

But  the  influence  of  the  Synagogue  went  further 
yet ;  it  is  still  at  work.  For  the  Christian  Church  and 
Church  Service  are  merely  adaptations  of  it ;  in  its 
architectural  arrangement  (partly),  in  its  use  of  prayers, 
lections,  preaching,  and  in  its  organisation  and  ministry, 
the  modern  Parish  Church  is  a  lineal  descendant  of  the 
Synagogue.  And  this  fact  is  due  in  turn  to  its  work 
of  preparing  the  minds  and  the  hearts  of  the  Jews,  by 
instructing  them  in  the  Prophets  and  pointing  them 
to  the  Messiah,  and  kindling  in  them  the  never-dying 
hope  which  is  so  remarkable  a  feature  of  their  creed. 
It  encouraged  a  truly  spiritual  form  of  reHgion.  The 
approach  to  God  was  not  conditioned  by  priest  and 
victim  and  Temple.  Each  faithful  soul  might  find  Him 
at  all  times  and  in  all  places  in  prayer ;  laymen  as  well 
as  clerics  might  instruct  their  fellows  and  lead  their 
worship. 

Piety,  therefore,  of  the  elementary  kind,  and  inde- 
pendence of  institutional  religion,  were  both  fostered 
by  the  Synagogue  system  ;  and  both  these  tendencies 
in  human  nature  received  still  further  encouragement 


108         THE  CRADLE  OF  CHEISTIANITY 

by  a  body  nowhere  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament, 
but  who  must  have  exercised  considerable  indirect 
influence  upon  the  national  religious  consciousness. 
Even  Herod  the  Great  found  it  politic  to  cultivate  their 
friendship.  This  body,  named  the  Essenes,  represented 
the  monastic  tendency  in  men  ;  and  was  a  brother- 
hood which  combined  the  strictest  Judaism  with  some 
elements  of  both  Greek  and  Oriental  religion.  In 
spirit  they  have  been  compared  both  to  the  Quakers 
and  the  Doukhobors,  while  in  their  devotion  to  the  Law 
and  their  love  of  ritual  and  ceremonial  purifications  they 
out-Phariseed  the  Pharisees,  and  their  life  was  tied  up 
with  all  manner  of  strict  regulations  and  procedures. 
They  were  as  extreme  and  as  ascetic  as  any  brotherhood 
could  be  ;  and  while  they  pressed  their  principles  even 
to  absurdity,  their  self-sacrifice  and  devotion  reached 
an  amazing  standard,  and  called  forth  the  admiration 
of  their  contemporaries,  against  whose  lax  lives  their 
existence  was  a  continual  protest. 

In  number  they  were  about  four  thousand,  and  their 
existence  dated  from  about  150  B.C.  Like  the  Zadokites 
(see  p.  12G),  they  originated  in  a  reform  movement. 
The  name  may  mean  "  pious,"  and  be  derived  from  the 
Aramaic  equivalent  of  "  Chasid " ;  and  it  is  quite 
possible  that  they  were  an  offshoot  of  the  Chasidim 
(see  p.  134),  although  diverging  widely  from  them. 
For  while  the  Chasidim  and  their  descendant  Pharisees 
were  strict  Jews,  the  Essenes  embraced  a  number  of 
both  Greek  and  Oriental  doctrines  and  practices,  which 
were  markedly  un-Jewish.  Dr.  Edersheim  (L,  p.  332) 
pleads  with  some  force  for  the  meaning  of  "  outsiders," 


THE  SYNAGOGUE—SECTS  AND  PAETIES   109 

and  another  suggested  meaning  is  "  silent."    In  any 
case  their  actual  origin  cannot  now  be  determined. 

Josephus  and  Philo  tell  us  that  they  had  com- 
munities in  every  city  and  village,  so  that  those  who 
travelled  about  preaching  could  always  find  others 
with  whom  to  lodge.  According  to  Pliny,  a  large 
community  flourished  on  the  western  shores  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  a  natural  result  of  their  tendency  to  separate 
from  their  fellow-men  and  their  love  of  seclusion.  Their 
occupation  was  mainly  agricultural,  together  with  the 
study  of  Scripture,  and  they  practised  community  of 
goods.  Needless  to  say,  they  eschewed  marriage,  having 
a  very  low  opinion  of  the  character  of  women.  Philo 
says  (quoted  by  Eusebius,  Prep.  Evang.,  8.  11.  8) :  "  No 
Essene  marries,  because  women  are  selfish  things 
and  inordinately  jealous,  and  apt  to  unsettle  men  and 
lead  them  astray  by  their  perpetual  wiles.  For  they 
use  flattering  words  and  other  hypocrisies,  as  if  acting 
a  part,  beguiling  both  eye  and  ear,  and  deceiving  men 
into  their  obedience,  and  imposing  on  the  master  mind. 
If  they  have  children,  they  are  filled  with  conceit  and 
boldness  of  speech,  and  what  they  previously  hinted 
at  secretly  and  deceitfully,  this  they  now  utter  with 
a  yet  greater  effrontery ;  and  without  any  shame  they 
force  men  to  do  things  which  bar  them  from  the  society 
of  others."  There  was,  however,  one  order  among  them 
who  permitted  marriage  with  women  who  had  under- 
gone a  three  years'  test.  (Jos.,  B.  J.,  2.  8.  13.)  Their 
numbers  they  maintained  by  the  free  entry  of  recruits 
and  by  the  adoption  of  young  children.  They  were 
the  first  society  in  the  world  to  condemn  slavery  and 


no         THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

to  renounce  it.  They  were  democratic  in  government, 
and  elected  their  own  priests  and  officials. 

Here  is  part  of  Josephus'  account  of  them  (B.  J., 
2.  8.  3-6) :  "  These  men  are  despisers  of  riches,  and 
share  their  goods  in  a  manner  that  compels  our  admira- 
tion. ...  It  is  a  law  among  them  that  those  who 
come  to  them  must  let  what  they  have  be  common  to 
the  whole  order  .  .  .  and  so  there  is,  as  it  were,  one 
patrimony  among  all  the  brethren.  They  think  that 
oil  is  a  defilement ;  and  if  any  one  of  them  be  anointed 
unwillingly  it  is  wiped  off  his  body.  They  hold  it  good 
to  go  unwashed,  and  also  to  wear  white  garments. 
.  .  .  They  have  no  one  certain  city,  but  many  of  them 
dwell  in  every  city  ;  and  if  any  of  their  sect  came  from 
other  places,  what  they  have  lies  open  for  them,  just  as 
if  it  were  their  own.  .  .  .  There  is,  in  every  city  where 
they  live,  one  specially  appointed  to  take  care  of  strangers, 
and  to  provide  garments  and  other  necessaries  for  them. 
.  .  .  They  do  not  allow  the  change  of  garments  or 
shoes,  till  they  be  first  entirely  torn  to  pieces  or  worn 
out  by  time.  Nor  do  they  buy  or  sell  anything  to  one 
another,  but  every  one  of  them  gives  what  he  hath  to 
him  that  wanteth  it,  and  receives  from  him  again  in 
lieu  of  it  what  may  be  convenient  for  himself ;  and 
although  there  be  no  requital  made,  they  are  fully  allowed 
to  take  what  they  want  of  whomsoever  they  please. 

"  And  as  for  their  piety  towards  God,  it  is  very  extra- 
ordinary ;  for  before  sunrise  they  speak  not  a  word 
about  profane  matters,  but  offer  certain  prayers  which 
they  have  received  from  their  forefathers,  as  if  they 
made  supplication  for  its  rising.    After  this  every  one 


THE  SYNAGOGUE— SECTS  AND  PARTIES   111 

of  them  is  sent  away  by  their  overseers  to  exercise  some 
of  those  arts  wherein  they  are  skilled,  in  which  they 
labour  with  great  diligence  until  the  fifth  hour.  After 
which  they  assemble  themselves  together  into  one 
place,  and  when  they  have  clothed  themselves  with 
white  veils,  they  then  bathe  their  bodies  in  cold  water. 
And  after  this  purification  is  over,  they  every  one  meet 
in  an  apartment  of  their  own,  into  which  it  is  not  per- 
mitted to  any  of  another  sect  to  enter.  And  so,  being 
cleansed,  they  go  into  their  dining-hall  as  if  into  a  holy 
temple,  and  sit  down  quietly,  while  the  baker  sets 
loaves  before  them  in  order,  and  the  cook  one  plateful 
of  one  kind  of  food.*  A  priest  says  grace,  and  it  is 
unlawful  for  any  one  to  taste  of  the  food  before 
grace  be  said.  The  same  priest  says  grace  again  after 
dinner ;  and  when  they  begin  and  when  they  end 
they  praise  God,  as  He  that  bestows  their  food 
upon  them.  After  this  they  lay  aside  their  white 
garments,  and  betake  themselves  to  their  labours 
until  the  evening ;  then  they  return  home  to  supper 
after  the  same  manner,  and  if  there  be  any  strangers 
there,  they  sit  down  with  them.  Nor  is  there  ever 
any  clamour  or  disturbance  to  pollute  their  house,  but 
they  give  one  another  leave  to  speak  in  their  turn  ; 
which  silence,  thus  kept  in  their  house,  appears  to 
foreigners  like  some  tremendous  mystery  ;  the  cause  of 
which  is  the  perpetual  sobriety  they  exercise,  and  the 
same  settled  measure  of  food  and  drink  that  is  allotted 
them,  and  that  such  is  abundantly  sufficient  for  them. 

*  opera-goers  will  remember  the  striking  parallel  to  this  in 
Wagner's  "Parsifal." 


112  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

*'.  .  .  They  dispense  their  anger  after  a  just  manner, 
and  restrain  their  passion.  They  are  eminent  for  fidelity, 
and  are  the  ministers  of  peace.  Whatsoever  they  say 
also  is  firmer  than  an  oath,  and  swearing  they  avoid 
and  esteem  worse  than  perjury  ;  for  they  say  that  he 
who  cannot  be  believed  without  swearing  by  God  is 
condemned  already.  They  also  take  great  pains  in 
studying  the  writings  of  the  ancients,  and  choose  out 
of  them  what  is  most  for  the  advantage  of  their  soul 
and  body,  and  they  inquire  after  such  roots  and  medicinal 
stones  as  may  cure  their  diseases." 

We  may  add,  also,  that  they  refused  to  sacrifice 
to  animals,  a  practice  which  cut  them  off  from  the  worship 
of  the  Temple,  but  they  sent  their  offerings  to  it  every 
year.  Philo  says  that  their  sacrifice  was  that  of  a  devout 
mind,  and  their  meals  as  described  above  bear  a  sacra- 
mental character.  They  believed  in  the  immortality 
of  the  soul,  with  future  rewards  and  punishments,  but 
they  denied  a  resurrection  to  the  body.  The  ancient 
accounts  seem  to  imply  that  they  worshipped  the  sun 
as  well  as  God  ;  and  they  used  an  allegorical  method  of 
interpreting  the  Scriptures,  to  which  they  were  devoted, 
especially  the  Law  of  Moses. 

A  candidate  for  membership  had  to  pass  through  a 
three  years'  probation  or  novitiate,  and  was  invested 
with  a  small  mattock,  a  girdle,  and  a  white  robe,  symbolic 
of  discipline  and  purity.  At  the  end  of  three  years,  if 
approved,  he  took  tremendous  oaths  of  fidelity  to  the 
rules  of  the  order,  and  proceeded  to  further  instruction 
in  their  secret  teaching.  They  were  graded  in  four 
orders,  and  even  the  touch  from  one  of  a  lower  order 


THE  SYNAGOGUE-SECTS  AND  PARTIES    113 

involved  defilement,  which  had  to  be  removed  by  cere- 
monial washing. 

They  added  divination  to  their  practical  activities, 
with  the  knowledge  of  healing,  spells  and  charms  and 
drugs  ;  and  the  same  practical  tendency  showed  itself 
in  their  teaching,  which,  while  largely  mystic  and 
speculative,  and  occupied  with  the  spiritual  world  (they 
had  a  highly  developed  angelology),  yet  avoided  specula- 
tions which  had  no  ethical  value  or  could  not  be  turned 
to  effect  in  daily  affairs. 

It  has  been  suggested  that,  owing  to  their  being 
unmentioned  in  the  New  Testament,  they  and  Christianity 
were  closely  connected.  Certainly  they  had  a  good 
deal  in  common.  They  practised  community  of  goods  ; 
studied  and  encouraged  prophecy  ;  some  early  Christians, 
at  all  events,  advocated  celibacy  ;  they  were  democratic 
in  government  and  loyal  to  authority ;  they  dined  in 
common,  and  in  the  Eucharist  and  Agape  was  a  parallel 
to  the  Essene  meals,  almost  sacramental  in  character ; 
they  were  charitable  and  industrious.  Our  Lord's 
teaching  about  oaths  and  the  instructions  to  the  Seventy 
and  the  Epistle  of  St.  James  resemble  Essene  teaching 
and  practice.  But  it  is  a  mistake  to  ascribe  an  Essene 
origin  to  Christianity ;  these  similarities  could  be 
extended  to  other  systems  also,  and  some  are  merely 
accidental,  and  originate  in  the  common  nature  and 
needs  of  men ;  and  while  the  Essenes  were  severe  ascetics, 
"  the  Son  of  Man  came  eating  and  diunking  "  ;  and  their 
respective  doctrines  regarding  the  Sabbath,  the  world, 
ceremonial  purity,  secrecy,  the  resurrection  of  the 
body,    are    entirely    opposed.    Their    descendants    are 

li 


lU  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

rather  to  be  found  in  the  Gnostic  sects  which  in  the 
second  century  gave  so  much  trouble  to  the  Church  ; 
and  these  later  tendencies  may  already  be  traced  in  the 
errors  condemned  by  St.  Paul  in  his  Epistle  to  the 
Colossians. 

They  disappeared  from  history  largely  because  they 
were  few  in  number,  and  because  their  practices  could 
only  appeal  to  the  few  ;  their  ideals  were  too  lofty  and 
their  regulations  too  strict  to  be  long  maintained ; 
but  still  more  because  Christianity  deprived  them  of 
their  reason  for  existence.  The  Church  preached  a 
stern  morality,  philanthropy,  and  a  spiritual  religion  ; 
was  itself  a  brotherhood ;  reckoned  with  the  good  and 
the  truths  that  all  religions  had  to  offer  ;  was  democratic 
in  organisation,  and  eschatological  in  teaching.  It  is 
probable  that  some  of  those  who  survived  the  terrors 
of  A.D.  70  became  Christians,  the  others  developing 
into  the  later  Gnostics. 

Besides  the  leading  parties  in  public  politics,  of 
whom  more  later,  there  were  minor  parties,  factions, 
and  movements  among  the  people  generally.  The 
feud  with  the  Samaritans  was  very  bitter,  and  it  dated 
right  back  to  the  days  of  the  Return,  when  Joshua 
and  Zerubbabel  refused  the  aid  of  this  mixed  people 
(of  Jewish  and  Assyrian  descent)  in  the  rebuilding  of 
the  Temple.  References  to  this  are  found  in  the  book 
of  Nehemiah.  This  repulse  embittered  the  Samaritans 
against  the  Jews  ;  and  the  ready  acceptance  by  the 
Samaritans  of  the  Greek  innovations  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  increased  the  hostility  of  the  Jews  against 
them.    In  our  Lord's  day  the  Jews  had  "  no  dealings  with 


THE  SYNAGOGUE-SECTS  AND  PARTIES   115 

the  Samaritans  "  (Jn.  i^) ;  the  very  name  '*  Samaritan  " 
was  a  term  of  abuse  (Jn.  S^S) ;  no  traveller  from 
Jerusalem  to  Galilee  would  go  through  Samaria  if 
he  could  avoid  it,  but  cross  the  Jordan  and  go  round. 
The  attention  shown  to  the  man  who  fell  among  thieves, 
and  the  gratitude  of  the  healed  leper,  both  take  their 
chief  value  from  the  fact  that  the  leper  and  the  man 
who  relieved  the  unfortunate  traveller  were  both 
Samaritans,  of  an  alien  and  hostile  race  (Lk.  10^^,  IT^^). 
The  Samaritans  would  not  admit  our  Lord  on  one 
occasion,  because  He  was  professedly  going  to  Jerusalem  ; 
and  their  hostility  aroused  the  worst  passions  of  two  of 
His  disciples,  one  of  whom,  be  it  noted,  was  afterwards 
the  Apostle  of  Love  (Lk.  9^2)  ^  ^^  first,  even  our 
Lord  forbade  His  disciples  to  preach  in  Samaria  (Mk.  10^) ; 
but  it  was  one  of  the  earliest  places  to  receive  Christianity 
afterwards,  its  evangelist,  however,  being  a  Greek, 
St.  PhiHp  ;  but  the  Jewish  St.  Peter  and  St.  John  made 
no  hesitation  to  accept  its  allegiance  to  the  Chm'ch 
(Acts  84;  cf.  also  Jn.  4;  Matthews,  pp.  63,  141,  145,  207). 
The  Galileans  shared  the  same  enmity,  though  to 
a  less  extent.  These  highlanders,  of  a  brave,  healthy, 
and  hardy  stock,  were  of  an  even  more  fiery  spirit  than 
the  Southern  Jews.  They  had  the  reputation  of  being 
ignorant  and  uncultured  ;  perhaps  "  Galilean  "  was  to 
the  Jew  of  Jerusalem  very  much  what  "  Boeotian " 
was  to  the  Athenian  (cf.  xicts  2^) ;  and  their  descent 
was  partially  tainted  with  Gentile  blood.  (In  Isa.  9^ 
we  read  "  Galilee,  i.e.  the  district,  of  the  Gentiles  ".) 
Out  of  Galilee  could  arise  no  prophet  (Jn.  7^2).  In 
our  Lord's  time  they  had  a  bad  name  for  lawlessness. 


116  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

They  had  shown  great  opposition  to  Herod  the  Great 
at  his  accession,  and  the  country  had  suffered  much 
through  their  raids  and  his  attempts  to  suppress  them. 
Later,  when  Archelaus  had  succeeded  him  in  Judaea, 
they  again  raised  the  standard  of  nationalist  revolt ; 
and  yet  another  rising  was  headed  by  Judas  of  Galilee 
(see  Acts  537  ;  Jos.,  Ant.  18.  1.1;  B.  J.  2.  8.  1),  at 
the  time  of  Quirinius'  census.  For  some  time,  during  our 
Lord's  infancy,  the  country  was  overrun  with  the 
rebels,  and  a  state  of  anarchy  prevailed ;  and  the  sons 
of  Judas,  a  generation  later,  followed  in  his  steps,  only, 
of  course,  to  be  similarly  and  ruthlessly  put  down. 

The  followers  of  Judas  became  the  party  of  the 
Zealots,  a  kind  of  extreme  "  young  Jew  "  party,  who 
carried  their  nationaUsm  to  a  fanatical  extreme.  They 
were  an  offshoot  of  Pharisaism  (cf.  the  6000  Pharisees 
who  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  Herod 
and  the  Emperor,  Jos.,  Ant.,  17.  2.  4;  and  also  the 
fanatical  outburst  which  led  to  the  tearing  down  of 
Herod's  eagle  from  the  Temple  Gate,  17.  6.  2-4  ;  and 
p.  26  above),  but  their  ideals  were  political  rather  than 
spiritual.  These  hotheads  would  have  no  sort  of 
foreign  domination,  and  they  asserted  their  independence 
with  the  true  martyr's  spirit.  "  They  have  an  inviolable 
attachment  to  liberty,  and  say  that  God  is  to  be  their 
only  ruler  and  lord,"  says  Josephus.  "  They  do  not 
value  dying  any  kind  of  death,  nor  indeed  do  they  heed 
the  deaths  of  their  relations  and  friends,  nor  can  any 
such  fear  make  them  call  any  man  lord."  (iVnt.,  18. 
1.6.) 

In  the  New  Testament  there  is  little  mention  of  them, 


THE  SYNAGOGUE— SECTS  AND  PARTIES   117 

but  several  traces  of  their  influence  are  found.  One 
of  our  Lord's  disciples,  possibly  a  member  of  His  family, 
was  a  Zealot,  i.e.  St.  Simon  Zelotes  or  Cananean  {not 
"  Canaanite,"  as  the  Authorised  Version  wrongly  has  it ; 
"  Cananean "  is  Hebrew  for  the  Greek  "  Zelotes  '* 
=fervent),  and  this  has  a  twofold  bearing  on  our  Lord's 
position.  It  witnesses  to  His  broad  sympathies  and 
catholicity ;  men  of  all  ranks  and  types  were  included 
in  the  Twelve.  And  it  laid  Him  open  to  grave  suspicion 
of  being  a  revolutionary.  In  fact,  it  is  probable  that 
the  question  about  the  tribute  (Mt.  22^^)  was  due  to  a 
desire  to  test  this  suspicion  (cf.  Lk.  23^,  and  23-^,  where 
the  mention  of  Galilee  carries  a  strong  insinuation  of 
sedition). 

Moreover,  the  presence  and  influence  of  the  Zealots 
gives  additional  point  to  our  Lord's  teaching  about 
meekness  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  (Mt.  5^,  9,  39-4i)^ 
and  to  His  efforts  at  concealment  (Mt.  1620,  179  ;  Mk. 
724,  36 ;  Jn.  615),  and  the  people's  disgust  at  His  failure 
to  satisfy  their  ideals  (Jn.  666).  In  Mt.  II12  there  is  a 
possible  allusion  to  the  Zealots,  and  undoubtedly  the 
preaching  of  St.  John  Baptist  fired  many  hearts,  not 
a  few  of  whom  would  have  favoured  hasty  and  "  violent  " 
methods.  Probably  the  crowd  from  Galilee  which 
accompanied  Jesus  to  Jerusalem  and  formed  the  Palm 
Sunday  procession  included  many  of  Zealot  sympathies 
and  ideals,  hoping  that  He  would  at  last  declare  Himself 
and  give  them  a  lead.  It  has  even  been  suggested 
that  Judas  Iscariot  planned  the  betrayal  in  order  to 
force  our  Lord's  hand  (he  and  St.  Simon  Zelotes  are 
closely  mentioned  in  all  lists  of  the  Twelve) ;   but  there 


118  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

is  nothing  in  the  Gospel  narrative  to  suggest  this,  but 
rather  the  contrary.  However,  Judas'  treachery  may 
have  been  equally  due  to  our  Lord's  failure  to  come  up 
to  his  expectations. 

We  notice  also  that  St.  Paul  and  St.  Peter  found  it 
necessary  to  be  at  great  pains  to  emphasise  and  inculcate 
the  peaceful  and  law-abiding  character  of  the  Christian 
(Rom.  131  ff. ;  1  Tim.  2^  fi. ;  1  Pet.  2i3  f .). 

Among  themselves  was  organised  a  band  of  Sicarii 
or  "  Dagger-men,"  who  went  about  armed  among  the 
crowds  at  feasts,  looldng  for  and  taking  opportunities 
for  dealing  a  fatal  blow  at  their  supposed  enemies. 
They  are  alluded  to  in  Acts  21^8 ;  and  Josephus  (B.  J., 
7.  10.  1)  describes  their  obstinacy  in  refusing  to  own  al- 
legiance to  the  Emperor,  and  their  marvellous  endurance 
of  great  privations  and  tortures.  It  was  they  who  pre- 
cipitated the  final  war  with  the  Romans,  and  contri- 
buted not  a  little  to  the  internal  dissensions  which 
hastened  the  fall  of  Jerusalem.  {See  Fairweather,  B. 
G.,  pp.  195-202.) 

Besides  these  parties  in  the  Jewish  populace,  there 
were  also  the  Grecian  Jews  or  Hellenists.  (See  Ch.  IV.) 
These  were  largely  the  descendants  of  foreign  Jews, 
i.e.  Jews  naturalised  in  foreign  countries,  and  some  the 
descendants  of  those  native  Jews  who  had  accepted 
the  innovations  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  The  former 
were  known  technically  as  the  "  Dispersion."  (See 
Jn.  735  ;  Acts  25,  61 ;  Jas.  P  ;  1  Pet.  l\  R.V.)  They 
were  more  liberal  and  broad-minded,  owing  to  their 
contact  with  men  of  other  habits  and  modes  of  thought, 


THE  SYNAGOGUE— SECTS  AND  PARTIES   119 

and  to  the  universal  prevalence  in  other  countries  of 
Greek  philosophy  and  literature ;  hence  they  were 
often  at  variance  with  their  more  conservative  and 
stricter  brethren.  They  had  their  own  synagogues  in 
Judaea,  for  the  benefit  of  occasional  residents  or  those 
who  were  finally  domiciled  in  Palestine  ;  for  naturally 
here  they  were  in  a  minority.  Their  numbers  had 
increased  largely  under  the  influence  of  Herod  the 
Great,  and  even  Jerusalem  had  its  amphitheatre  and 
public  games,  and  Greek  dress  and  customs  w^ere  common, 
in  spite  of  the  opposition  and  warnings  of  the  orthodox. 
They,  and  their  relations  to  the  orthodox  Jews,  are 
illustrated  by  the  story  of  St.  Stephen  (Acts  6,  7). 
(It  should  be  noted  that  while  the  heart  of  Judaism  was 
undoubtedly  in  Palestine,  the  bulk  of  the  Jemsh  nation 
was  domiciled  elsewhere.  Only  a  small  proportion 
returned  from  the  Babylonish  exile  ;  the  bulk  stayed 
behind  ;  and  there  was  a  large  settlement  also  in  Egypt.) 
(See  Ch.  IV.) 

The  impression  is  already  clear  that  the  Jews  were 
a  most  exclusive  people.  Their  traditional  faith  in 
their  choice  by  Jehovah  to  be  His  own  especial  people, 
and  the  possession  of  a  Law  (certainly  lofty  and  unique), 
caused  them  to  draw  a  hard  and  fast  line  once  and  for 
all  between  them  and  all  other  peoples.  The  Pharisee 
was  the  true  representative  of  Judaism ;  and  while 
here  and  there  might  be  a  renegade,  who  for  family  or 
social  or  commercial  or  political  reasons  broke  with  his 
own  people,  the  vast  majority  were  as  clannish,  and 
jealous  of  their  pure  descent,  as  a  people  could  be.    We 


120         THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

have  already  seen  the  deference  paid  to  this  by  the 
Romans,  with  the  natural  result  that  it  was  thereby 
further  strengthened,  and  the  national  pride  flattered. 
The  privileges  obtained,  as,  for  instance,  at  Alexandria, 
where  two-fifths  of  the  population  was  Jewish,  hardened 
the  barrier  between  them  and  the  Gentile.  It  was 
everywhere  their  pride  and  boast  that  they  had 
"  Abraham  to  their  father  "  (Mt.  3^  ;  Jn.  833) ;  and 
the  taunts  of  Christ  that  the  prophets  EHjah  and  Elisha 
were  acknowledged  by  the  Gentiles  of  Sidon  and  Syria 
roused  them  to  fury  (Lk.  4^4)  ;  "  salvation  "  was  recog- 
nised, or  at  least  claimed,  to  be  "  of  the  Jews  "  (Jn.  4^4) ; 
the  statements  of  St.  Stephen,  while  nothing  more  than 
the  plain  truth,  that  Judaism  had  not  always  been  tied 
to  the  Temple  and  the  Promised  Land,  caused  his 
death  ;  and  so  enraged  were  they,  that  he  had  no 
semblance  of  a  sentence,  but  was  madly  lynched  by  those 
who  should  have  been  the  "  grave  and  reverend  signiors  " 
of  the  people  (Acts  7). 

If  one  is  inclined  to  marvel  at  this  spirit,  one  must 
remember  that  local  and  national  pride  is  one  of  the 
hardest  things  to  kill.  It  exists  in  many  rural  villages 
and  provincial  towns  ;  a  true  gipsy  is  as  exclusive  and 
proud  as  the  Jew  ;  Welsh  and  Irish  and  Scotch  refuse 
to  be  amalgamated  entirely  with  their  fellow-Britons ; 
the  ties  of  blood  are  far  stronger  than  any  surface-ties 
of  international  Socialism  and  ecclesiastical  relations  ; 
war  and  opposition  only  consolidate  a  nation  and  heal 
its  disunions.  So  with  the  Jew  ;  from  earliest  days  he 
had  been  told  to  keep  aloof  from  the  Gentile  ;  that 
he  was  the  chosen  of  Jehovah  from  among  all   the 


THE  SYNAGOGUE— SECTS  AND  PARTIES   121 

families  of  the  earth  ;  he  had  great  quahties,  which 
raised  him  above  other  men  ;  he  had  won  his  inheritance 
by  hard  fighting  and  perseverance  ;  his  hope  of  future 
greatness  was  high  and  vivid.  Opposition  only  intensified 
his  spirit  and  quickened  his  ideals. 

In  the  higher  ranks  of  the  nation  certain  clearly 
defined  parties  or  groups  may  be  discerned  and  named. 
One  of  these,  a  small  group,  took  their  name  from  the 
Herodian  family.  Probably  they  were  men  who  had 
given  up  all  hope  of  a  full  measure  of  temporal  power, 
and  had  not  risen  to  a  spiritual  ideal  for  their  nation. 
Sadducean  in  temperament  (cf.  Mk.  8^^  with  Mt.  IG^), 
they  were  willing  to  compromise.  They  recognised 
the  very  great  debt  that  Judaism  owed  to  Herod  the 
Great ;  for  he  had  brought  them  prosperity  and  com- 
fort, had  built  and  beautified  cities  for  them,  and  a 
harbour  ;  he  had  made  concessions  to  their  prejudices, 
even  if  he  had  at  times  flouted  them  ;  he  had  been 
generous  in  famine  time,  if  crafty  and  unscrupulous  at 
others  ;  and,  above  all,  by  his  astuteness  he  had  pro- 
cured for  them  the  friendship  of  Rome,  and  as  much 
independence  as  they  were  ever  hkely  to  obtain.  When 
Herod's  kingdom,  partitioned  at  his  death  among  his 
sons,  was  put  under  a  Roman  procurator,  the  spirit 
of  this  Herodian  party  was  challenged,  and  revived. 
Their  political  vision  was  keen,  and  they  wished,  and 
would  have  been  content,  to  have  had  the  kingdom 
re-established  in  Herod's  line  ;  so  they  would  have  been 
able  to  make  the  best  of  both  this  world  and  the  next. 

It  was  doubtless  this  spirit  which  induced  our  Lord 
to  warn  His  disciples  against  "  the  leaven  of  Herod  '.* 


122         THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

(Mk.  815) ;  and  it  is  remarkable,  and  a  proof  of  the 
opposition  wliicli  Jesus  aroused,  that  the  Pharisees 
shoukl  have  joined  forces  with  them,  and  still  more 
with  the  Sadducees,  in  plotting  to  destroy  Him  (Mt.  22 ^^  ; 
Mk.  3®.  It  was  they  who  propounded  the  question 
about  the  tribute-money).  For  the  Pharisees  were 
nationalists  and  reHgious  to  the  backbone,  and  could 
not  tolerate  the  worldly  spirit  of  the  Herodians ;  they 
were  to  the  Pharisees  what  the  Hellenising  Jews  had  been 
to  the  Chasidim  in  the  days  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  ; 
and  Herod's  insults  to  Judaism  were  too  great  to  be 
overlooked.  Had  he  not  erected  heathen  temples, 
introduced  heathen  sports  and  games,  erected  heathen 
trophies  in  Jerusalem,  and  an  eagle  over  the  Temple- 
gate  1  Had  he  not  degraded  the  High-Priesthood,  and 
destroyed  the  Maccabean  dynasty  ? 


CHAPTER   VII 

THE    SADDUCEES    AND    PHARISEES 

Ajstother  clearly  defined  and  important  party  were 
the  Sadducees.  Their  origin  must  be  sought  right  away 
back  in  the  days  of  the  Return,  when  some  of  the 
priestly  famihes  {e.g.  EHashib,  Neh.  134;  Ezra  9^) 
contracted  matrimonial  alliances  with  Gentiles,  and  in 
other  ways  departed  from  the  traditional  exclusive- 
ness  of  the  Jews,  introducing  more  liberal  and  broad- 
minded,  not  to  say  more  lax,  views  of  life.  (This,  be 
it  noted,  is  a  tendency  found  in  all  communities  ;  and, 
naturally,  the  Jews  were  no  exception  to  the  rest  of 
humanity.  Thus,  in  religion,  the  monastic  tendency 
found  expression  in  Essenism,  the  legal  and  rituahstic 
in  Pharisaism,  the  Hberal,  and  also  the  conservative, 
in  Sadduceeism,  the  pietistic  in  the  Synagogue  system.) 
In  a  later  age,  they  naturally  accepted  the  Hellenistic 
innovations  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  together  with 
the  loosening  of  ancient  restrictions  and  the  luxuries 
and  pleasures  of  Greek  life.  (Cf.  1  Mace,  l^iff.,  43  g. . 
Zadokite  Fragment,  1^  ff.,  8^,  and  9i9,  20.  «'  Their  wine 
is  the  poison  of  dragons  and  the  cruel  venom  of  asps. 
The  dragons  are  the  kings  of  the  Gentiles  and  their 


124        THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

wine  is  their  ways  ;  and  the  venom  of  asps  is  the  head 
of  the  kings  of  Javan,  i.e.  Greece,  who  came  to  execute 
vengeance  upon  them ".)  Liberalism  and  worldliness 
are  often  not  far  apart,  and  when  the  Maccabean  line 
had  raised  the  nation  to  a  position  of  independence 
and  given  it  power,  the  Sadducees  upheld  their  efforts 
to  maintain  these. 

It  was  at  this  time,  under  John  Hyrcanus,  B.C.  135- 
105,  that  the  two  names  Sadducee  and  Pharisee  first 
appeared,  the  former  as  probably  as  not  being  a  title 
recaUing  the  Zadok,  High  Priest  in  David's  and  Solomon's 
reigns,  the  nominally  ancestral  founder  of  the  priestly 
families  (Ezek.  40^6,  43i9,  44^5,  48ii).  The  later 
Maccabeans  declined  from  the  purely  spiritual  ideals 
of  their  ancestors,  and  their  aims  were  mainly  secular, 
to  secure  and  increase  their  national  position.  This 
disappointed  and  alienated  the  more  religious  members 
of  the  community  ;  these,  when  the  rift  widened  into 
a  breach,  became  the  Pharisees  ;  and  the  others,  the 
ruling,  aristocratic  class,  who  had  enjoyed  wealth  and 
position  for  generations,  followed  their  natural  bent, 
and  adhered  to  the  leaders  whose  rule  would  secure  to 
them  that  which  lay  nearest  their  hearts. 

Their  history  also  influenced  their  position  not  a 
little.  The  Sadducees  had  grown  up  under  the  shelter 
of  an  "  Established  Church."  They  were  the  Sons  of 
Zadok,  and  their  right  to  the  priesthood  was  unques- 
tioned and  of  very  ancient  date.  A  long  history  was 
theirs,  and  their  traditional  position  was  of  great  honour 
and  dignity.  Novelty  and  innovation  would  not  com- 
mend itself   to   men   of  such   ancestry.     The    original 


THE  SADDUCEES  AND  PHARISEES        125 

written  Law  was  naturally  their  charter ;  the  principle 
of  development  and  growth  would  seem  to  lessen  its 
authority ;  a  conservative,  almost  liberal,  method  of 
interpretation  would  be  preferable,  especially  if  there 
were  tendencies  abroad  which  resulted  in  far-fetched 
and  fanciful  conclusions.  It  is  unjust  to  say  that  the 
Sadducees  were  altogether  irreligious  ;  in  a  sense  no 
Jew  was  without  religion ;  and  their  very  position  was 
that  of  champions  of  the  original  Law  as  against  modern 
accretion  and  unwarranted  development. 

In  fact,  we  must  probably  revise  the  traditional 
estimate  of  the  Sadducees,  or  at  least  recognise  that  it 
apphes  only  to  part  of  their  number ;  for  it  does  not 
square  exactly  with  the  facts  ;  it  is  based  largely  on 
Josephus,  and  his  view  has  been  justly  criticised.  (See 
Oesterley,  "  Books  of  the  Apocrypha,"  p.  135  ff.)  Thus 
it  has  been  said  that  they  denied  any  part  to  God  in 
the  course  of  this  world's  events,  any  form  of  predesti- 
nation or  control ;  "  they  felt  no  need  of  a  Divine  pro- 
vidence, but  relied  entirely  on  their  own  resources  "  ; 
"  they  claimed  nothing  from  God,  nor  He  from  them." 
(Cf.  Jos.,  B.  J.,  2.  8.  U;  Ant.  13.  5.  9.)  But  if 
this  be  so,  it  conflicts  entirely  with  the  doctrine  of  God  in 
the  Pentateuch,  which  they  so  stoutly  upheld.  (Cf .  Acts 
51"^  ff.,  where  the  Sanhedrin,  with  its  Sadducean  majority, 
accepts  the  words  of  Gamaliel  about  the  Christian 
movement  being  a  work  of  God ;   and  Mt.  3^.) 

We  must  also  beware  of  ascribing  to  the  Sadducees 
a  denial  of  a  future  life.  They  certainly  denied  the 
resurrection  of  the  body  (see  Mt.  22^3  ;  Acts  23^ ;  cf.  4^), 
as  it  could  not  be  proved  from  the  Pentateuch ;    but 


126  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

there  is  only  one  reason  why  they  should  deny  the  con- 
tinued existence  of  the  soul  after  death,  which,  if  it 
only  be  the  traditional  shadowy  existence  in  Sheol, 
is  implied  all  through  the  Old  Testament.  This  reason 
is  that  they  were  forced  into  it  by  opposition  to  the 
Pharisees.  From  this  position  they  might  have  developed 
a  disbelief  in  a  judgment,  and  hence  in  man's  responsi- 
bility to  God ;  whence  again  into  the  magnifying  of 
man's  self-dependence,  and  the  separation  of  God  from 
the  world ;  a  comfortable  set  of  doctrines,  to  those  who 
preferred  the  world  to  God. 

This  confusion  of  terms,  between  the  resurrection 
of  the  body  and  a  future  life,  may  have  given  rise  to 
the  assertion  that  the  Sadducees  disbelieved  in  angels 
and  spirits  (Acts  23^) ;  for  in  the  Pentateuch  are 
numerous  references  to  angelic  visits.  What  is  probably 
meant  is  that  they  denied  that  men  after  death  became 
angels  or  spirits,  as  when  it  was  said  of  St.  Peter,  *'  It 
is  his  angel  "  (Acts  12i5). 

Moreover,  there  is  convincing  proof  that  they 
numbered  among  them  not  a  few  who  were  devout- 
minded,  even  if  opposed  to  the  developments  taught 
by  the  Pharisees  ;  i.e.  they  were  opposed  to  the  principle 
of  development,  like  the  devout  souls  to-day  who  cannot 
away  with  the  same  principle  as  expressed  in  the  critical 
and  modernist  movements.  In  the  interesting  "  Zadoldte 
Fragment,"  it  is  recorded  how  about  the  year  176  u.r., 
i.e.  half  a  century  before  the  parties  were  clearly  divided 
and  opposed,  a  reform  movement  from  among  the 
priests  was  inaugurated.  This  resulted  in  an  open 
breach  with  the  worldly  and  Hellenising  priests,  and  a 


THE  SADDUCEES  AND  PHARISEES       127 

secession  to  Damascus,  and  the  founding  of  the  *'  New 
Covenant,"  by  the  "  penitents  "  as  the  Reformers  styled 
themselves,  and  a  later  return  to  Jerusalem,  with  the 
claim  to  be  the  true  Sons  of  Zadok  and  heirs  of  the 
promises.     {See  e\  8^,  is^  928,  37.) 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  Zadokites  allowed 
a  certain  amount  of  development  in  doctrine,  and  also 
strongly  upheld  the  prophetical  teaching.  They  be- 
lieved in  a  blessed  future  life,  in  both  predestination 
and  free-will.  (See  9"^  and  Charles,  A.  and  P.,  II., 
pp.  785,  789,  791,  796.)  Dr.  Oesterley  further  holds 
that  traces  of  their  teaching,  by  no  means  unworthy, 
may  be  found  in  such  books  as  Sirach,  the  Testaments 
of  the  XII.  Patriarchs,  and  Jubilees  {op.  cit.,  pp.  148-151). 

One  more  point  may  be  added.  In  Mt.  5^7  ff.^  if 
our  Lord's  meaning  is  pressed  (and  not  taken  in  a  merely 
general  sense),  it  upholds  the  Sadducean  position  rather 
than  that  of  the  Pharisees.  In  Mt.  15^  ff.  he  clearly 
condemns  the  Pharisaic  "  tradition."  (Cf.  23^  if. ; 
Mk.  71  ff. ;  Lk.  1137  fi.) 

The  Sadducees  cannot  be  described  as  merely  worldly 
in  their  earlier  days  ;  but  there  is  no  doubt,  when  all 
the  facts  are  considered,  that  they  decHned  sadly  from 
their  first  ideals,  just  as  the  Pharisees  also  largely  declined. 
The  reform  movement  of  the  Zadokites  shows  whither 
the  main  body  were  in  effect  wending.  Centuries  of 
wealth  and  position  had  bhghted  the  flower  of  spiritual 
religion  in  them,  and  the  love  of  this  world  reduced  their 
interest,  and  ultimately  their  belief,  in  the  next.  Religion 
came  to  be  with  them  more  a  subject  of  controversy, 
a  mark  of  ancient  respectability,  and  a  source  of  revenue. 


128  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

They  have  been  compared  to  the  cold  Churchmen  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  to  whom  Christianity  was  a 
habit,  a  decency  of  Hfe,  but  who  strenuously  and  in- 
dignantly resisted  any  suggestion  that  it  should  weigh 
with  their  consciences  or  affect  their  personal  habits, 
to  whom  Methodism  or  any  enthusiasm  was  anathema. 
For  another  modern  parallel  we  may  compare  the  picture 
drawn  by  Trollope  of  Archdeacon  Grantly  and  his 
fellows  at  Barchester. 

Viewed  in  another  light,  they  illustrate  the  effect  of 
reaction.  The  Pharisees  cared  for  nothing  except  the 
Law  ;  they  had  even  allowed  themselves  to  be  massacred 
by  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  rather  than  desecrate  the 
Sabbath  by  fighting.  (1  Mace.  162,  223,  42^  7,)  To  the 
Sadducee  such  fanaticism  was  mere  folly,  especially 
when  the  Law  included,  as  it  did  to  the  Pharisee,  a 
large  and  increasing  body  of  oral  teaching.  So  he  allowed 
himself  increasing  freedom  as  to  obeying  the  restrictions 
of  his  faith,  and  the  removal  of  restraint  induced  laxity. 
He  denied  the  oral  interpretation  of  the  Law,  such  as 
had  grown  up  under  the  care  of  generations  of  Scribes, 
adhering  only  to  the  written  text ;  and  the  faith  which 
he  had  begun  thus  to  doubt,  he  came  eventually  to  dis- 
believe, and  to  disregard.  He  professed  to  uphold  the 
practice  of  virtue  for  its  own  sake,  and  as  against  the 
formalism  and  ritualism  of  the  Pharisee,  without  hope 
of  future  reward  ;  he  ended  in  a  cold  rationalism,  which 
denied  any  future  where  a  reward  might  be  possible. 
So,  too,  among  the  Greeks,  Zeno  taught  self-restraint 
as  the  highest  virtue,  and  the  Stoics  ended  by  repressing 
all  human  instincts  and  affections.     Epicurus  taught 


THE  SADDUCEES  AND  PHARISEES        129 

that  in  virtue  lay  the  only  true  pleasure,  and  his  followers 
lived  as  if  pleasure-seeking  was  the  only  true  virtue. 
(For  this  effect  of  reaction,  cf.  a  striking  article  in  the 
Times  of  April  14th,  1915,  by  Mr.  George  Russell, 
entitled,  "The  Spiritual  Conflict".)  Mere  denial, 
mere  protestantism,  can  only  result  in  spiritual  death. 
Growth,  progress,  development,  are  necessary  to  life 
in  the  spiritual,  as  well  as  the  material  world.  If  the 
Pharisees  went  off  into  strange  paths  in  their  inter- 
pretation of  the  Law  and  the  development  of  their 
faith,  at  least  theirs  was  a  living  creed.  It  was  the 
Pharisees  who  survived  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  and  pre- 
served the  identity  of  the  people  ;  the  Sadducees  dis- 
appeared at  once. 

In  our  Lord's  day  they  were  outwardly  in  disfavour. 
Herod  the  Great  had  thrown  them  over,  although  he 
could  not  displace  them ;  and  this,  together  with  the 
favour  of  the  people,  had  left  the  greatest  influence  in 
the  hands  of  the  Pharisees.  Doubtless  the  sincere  and 
devout  Sadducees,  such  as  the  followers  of  the  Zadokite 
movement,  like  the  sincere  and  devout  Pharisees 
mentioned  in  the  Gospels,  welcomed  our  Lord's  teaching, 
and  later  became  members  of  the  Christian  Church 
(cf.  Acts  6').  But,  speaking  generally,  the  Sadducees 
as  a  party  exercised  little  direct  influence  at  the  time  of 
our  Lord,  as  is  evident  from  the  pages  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. They  were  never  numerous ;  they  are  only 
mentioned  four  times  in  the  Gospels,  three  times  in  the 
Acts,  and  never  by  St.  John,  although  we  find  several 
traces  of  the  position  and  the  views  which  they  held. 
St.  John  Baptist  greeted  both  them  and  the  Pharisees 

I 


130         THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

with  the  cry  "  ofispriug  of  vipers "  (the  Gospels  all 
through  give  an  interesting  proof  of  how  extremes 
meet ;  for  both  came  under  his  and  our  Lord's  con- 
demnation, and,  most  strangely,  they  made  common 
cause  together  in  their  antagonism  to  Him,  and  this 
joining  of  forces  is  again  a  proof  of  the  opposition  which 
He  aroused).     (Cf.  also  Mt.  IG^.) 

It  was  the  Sadducees  who  propounded  to  Him  the 
old  and  fooUsh  question  of  the  schools,  about  the  woman 
with  seven  husbands,  which  He  took  out  of  their  hands 
and  raised  to  an  altogether  higher  plane,  taking  also 
the  opportunity  to  rebuke  them  for  their  disbelief  in  a 
resurrection  (Mt.  2223). 

It  was  the  Sadducees  who,  as  the  priestly  class, 
and  commanding  a  majority  in  the  Sanhedrin,  were 
responsible  for  the  maintenance  of  the  Temple,  and  the 
ordering  of  its  arrangements.  Consequently,  it  was  their 
interest  and  their  revenues  that  our  Lord  interfered  with, 
when  He  made  the  scourge  of  small  cords  and  drove  the 
money-changers  and  dove-sellers  out  of  the  Temple-courts 
(Mt.  21^2),  In  general,  "  chief  priests "  stands  for 
*'  Sadducees,"  and  their  vested  interest  is  well  illustrated 
by  the  reason  given  for  destroying  Jesus — "  Lest  the 
Romans  come  and  take  away  both  our  place  and  our 
nation  "  (Jn.  ll^?).  Christ,  by  His  Messianic  pretensions, 
was  a  dangerous  person  pohtically,  and  popular  risings 
were  feared  if  He  went  unchecked  ;  hence  the  Sadducean 
eye  to  self-interest,  and  readiness  to  evade  or  dis- 
regard their  Law  if  it  interfered  with  their  comfort, 
combined  to  condemn  Him,  even  to  making  the  amazing 
confession,  "  We  have  no  king  but  Caesar  "  (Jn.  19^^). 


THE  SADDUCEES  AND  PHARISEES       131 

Similar  evidence  is  aflordcd  by  the  Acts.  The 
Sadducees  were  "  sore  troubled,"  because  the  Apostles 
"  proclaimed  in  Jesus  the  resurrection  from  the  dead '' 
(42) ;  and  after  the  first  imprisonment  and  admonition 
of  the  Apostles,  it  was  they  who  initiated  the  sterner 
measures  against  them  (51'^).  When  St.  Paul  was 
arraigned  before  the  Sanhedrin,  he  skilfully  turned  their 
doctrinal  controversies  to  his  own  account,  asserting 
that  the  cause  of  his  being  before  them  turned  on  the 
question  of  a  resurrection  of  the  dead.  St.  Luke  adds 
that  the  Sadducees,  besides  denying  this,  denied  the 
existence  also  of  angels  and  spirits  (23^  ;  but  see  above, 
p.  125). 

In  their  teaching  they  rejected  the  "  tradition  of  the 
elders,"  i.e.  the  oral  interpretation  of  the  Law,  which 
had  grown  up  during  the  centuries,  and  adhered  stolidly 
to  the  written  Law  alone.  Cf.  Lk.  2037,  where  our 
Lord  faces  them  with  an  argument  drawn  from  the 
Pentateuch;  and  ''Zadokite  Frag."  l^  if.,  the  attack 
on  the  Pharisees,  the  "  treacherous  men  .  .  .  who 
talked  to  Israel  lying  words,  and  made  them  go  astray 
in  the  wilderness  where  there  was  no  way,  so  that 
they  should  turn  aside  from  the  paths  of  righteousness, 
and  remove  the  landmark  which  the  fathers  had  set 
in  their  inheritance.  They  .  .  .  transgressed  the  cove- 
nant and  violated  the  statute  and  attacked  the  soul  of 
the  righteous."  (Cf.  2\  3^  4io,  5^,  7^,  is,  8i2,  92?,  49  ff.) 
It  is  strange  that  they,  so  liberal  in  other  things,  should 
have  been  so  blindly  conservative  and  reactionary  in 
this.  (The  real  reason  was  that  they  came  eventually 
to  care  more  for  politics  than  for  religion,  and  that  this 


132         THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

position  was  forced  on  them  by  their  opposition  to  the 
Pharisees.)  In  applying  the  Criminal  Law  they  were 
more  liberal  than  the  Pharisees,  exacting  the  lex 
talionis  ("  an  eye  for  an  eye  and  a  tooth  for  a  tooth  ") 
as  laid  down,  also  the  law  requiring  spitting  in  the  face 
as  a  sign  of  repudiation  (Deut.  25^).  The  Pharisees 
allowed  a  money  payment  in  the  one  case,  and  to  spit 
on  the  gromid  in  the  offender's  presence,  in  the  other. 
In  certain  cases  they  were  obliged  to  allow  some  oral 
and  traditional  teaching,  because  there  were  always 
cases  not  provided  for  by  the  written  Law.  Thus  they 
were  forced  to  accept  the  Pharisaic  principle.  But 
these  enactments  were  always  regarded  as  temporary, 
and  of  less  authority  than  the  original  Law.  The 
Pharisees  upheld  both  equally,  although  in  their  asser- 
tion that  the  oral  was  based  on  the  written,  they,  too, 
in  turn  accepted  the  Sadducean  principle.  So  difficult, 
not  to  say  impossible,  is  absolute  consistency. 

One  more  point  of  difference  between  them  was  the 
Pharisaic  insistence  on  the  most  scrupulous  cleanliness 
in  all  ritual  actions,  and  the  most  elaborate  purificatory 
ceremonies.  At  these  the  Sadducees  mocked,  saying 
that  the  books  of  Homer  were  then  purer  than  the 
Law,  seeing  that  they  did  not  need  so  much  cleansing, 
or  convey  defilement  to  the  man  who  touched  them. 
"  These  Pharisees,"  they  said,  "  will  end  by  purifying 
the  sun  itself."  This,  and  the  numerous  other  ritualistic 
requirements,  the  worldHng  Sadducee  could  not  away 
with  :  it  was  too  childish  ;  besides  it  made  too  many 
demands  on  a  man's  time  and  attention,  and  con- 
science must  be  kept  in  its  place.    Their  spirit  has  been 


THE  SADDUCEES  AND  PHARISEES        133 

thus  described  by  Thackeray  (quoted  by  Fairweather, 
E.  A.,  p.  159) :  "  The  Baptist  might  be  in  the  wilderness, 
shouting  to  the  poor  who  were  Hstening  with  all  their 
might  and  faith  to  the  preacher's  awful  accents  and 
denunciations  of  wrath  or  woe  or  salvation ;  and  our 
friend  the  Sadducee  would  turn  his  sleek  mule  with  a 
shrug  and  a  smile  from  the  crowd,  and  go  home  to  the 
shade  of  his  terrace,  and  muse  over  preacher  and 
audience,  and  turn  to  his  roll  of  Plato,  or  his  pleasant 
Greek  song-book,  babbhng  of  honey  and  Hybla,  and 
nymphs,  and  fountains  of  love." 

His  rival,  the  Pharisee,  was  of  similar  ancient  origin, 
and  represented  the  genuinely  religious  strain  in  human 
nature.  The  name  has  hitherto  been  explained  as 
meaning  "  separated,"  and  certainly  the  Pharisees 
upheld  the  principle  of  "  Come  ye  out  from  among 
them,  and  be  ye  separate  "  (2  Cor.  6^-^),  and  fostered  the 
spirit  of  nationahsm  and  exclusiveness,  following  the 
pohcy  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  who  made  strenuous 
efforts,  not  with  entire  success,  to  free  the  returned 
exiles  from  all  ties  with  their  neighbours.  But  in  no 
other  sense  were  they  "  separate."  They  originated 
from  among  the  people,  were  the  "  popular  "  party, 
and  mixed  freely  with  them  (cf.  Jos.,  Ant.,  13.  10.  6) ; 
the  movement  had  been  largely  of  lay  origin  (see 
Charles,  II.,  pp.  790,  792) ;  and  they  actually  con- 
demned the  practice  of  holding  aloof  from  the  people 
as  practised  by  the  Sadducees  (Niddah,  4.  2  ;  P.  Aboth, 
2.  4).  Hence  another  meaning  has  recently  been 
suggested,  and  from  the  same  root,  "  interpreters ". 
This  has  much  to  commend  it ;  for  the  interpretation 


134         THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

of  the  Law  was  their  chief  occupation,  and  the  battle- 
field between  them  and  the  Sadducees.  For  this  view 
we  may  compare  Jos.,  B.  J.,  2.  8.  14,  and  their  close 
connection  with  the  Scribes  in  the  New  Testament. 

Their  own  name  for  themselves  was  "  Chaberim," 
i.e.  brethren,  associates,  neighbours  ;  i.e.  they  regarded 
themselves  as  a  fraternity,  a  select  inner  circle  within 
the  holy  people,  not  a  monastic  order  like  the  Essenes, 
living  out  of  the  world,  but  a  body  of  men  living  in  the 
world,  only  by  a  stricter  rule  and  on  more  idealistic 
lines.  In  this  connection  they  distinguished  themselves 
from  the  ordinary  people,  the  "  people  of  the  land," 
whom  they  despised  and  ignored.  Pharisaism  was 
such  that  ordinary  folk  could  not  possibly  know  the 
whole  duty  of  man,  still  less  practise  it ;  "no  boor  fears 
sin,  and  none  of  the  common  herd  can  be  pious,"  said 
Hillel  (Aboth,  2.  9) ;  hence  this  fraternity  prided  them- 
selves on  their  superiority,  and  took  endless  steps  to 
shield  themselves  from  the  defiling  contact  of  the 
multitude,  the  multitude  which  "  knew  not  the  Law 
and  was  accursed  "  (Jn.  7^^,  9^^). 

While  the  actual  name  Pharisee  does  not  appear 
until  the  time  of  John  Hyrcanus  (135-105)  we  read  of 
another  section  of  the  people,  from  whom  there  is  little 
doubt  that  the  Pharisees  ultimately  had  their  origin. 
These  were  the  Chasidim  or  Hasideans,  the  title  meaning 
pious,  one  who  has  received  the  favour  of  God's  intimacy 
and  has  responded  to  it.  It  is  used  frequently  in  the 
Psalms,  of  the  poor  "  godly  "  man,  who  is  contrasted 
with  the  rich  worldling,  and  of  the  "  Saints  "  (cf.  12\ 
50^  149^,  ^,  9).    The  name  was  given  first  in  the  time 


THE  SADDUCEES  AND  PHARISEES       135 

of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  to  tliat  section  of  tlie  people 
who  resisted  most  strongly  the  Hellenising,  and  to  them 
therefore  denationalising,  efforts  of  that  king.  They 
upheld  devotion  to  the  Law  as  the  one  thing  desirable 
and  necessary,  and  strenuously  resisted  all  efforts  to 
interfere  with  it.  Their  ideal  was  God  and  the  Law, 
rather  than  national  independence ;  they  were  not 
unpatriotic,  but  they  felt  that  the  nation's  interest 
would  be  best  served,  and  their  political  status  also, 
by  strict  adherence  to  their  traditional  teaching  and 
faith  ;  God  was  supreme  and  would  do  what  was  right, 
if  only  they  did  what  was  right  on  their  part.  (Cf. 
1  Mace.  714.) 

An  instance  of  their  extreme  devotion  to  the  Law, 
to  the  point  of  fanaticism,  is  described  in  1  Mace.  2^2  g^^ 
where  many  accepted  death  rather  than  profane  the 
Sabbath  by  fighting ;  and  their  martyr-spirit  is  seen  in 
1^2^  where  they  chose  death  in  preference  to  eating 
unclean  food.  (Cf.  their  words  in  a  later  day,  when 
the  Emperor  Caius  proposed  to  erect  his  own  statue  in 
the  Temple  :  "  We  will  die  rather  than  see  our  laws 
transgressed  "  (Jos.,  Ant.,  18.  8.  3).) 

Strictly  spealdng,  the  Hasidean  and  his  descendant 
the  Pharisee  stood  aloof  from  politics  altogether  ;  but 
on  certain  occasions  he  was  forced  to  take  an  active 
part  in  public  life.  To  this  was  due  their  existence 
as  a  party  in  the  State  and  the  crystallising  of  their 
tenets,  in  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  Later, 
when  the  Maccabeans  had  raised  the  nation  to  an 
independent  position,  and  had  fallen  away  from  the 
purely  spiritual  ideals  which  had  at  first  animated  them, 


136  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

the  Pharisees'  support  waned  considerably,  and  John 
Hyrcanus  definitely  broke  with  them.  They  were 
disappointed  that  no  "  kingdom  of  Saints  "  had  appeared 
as  the  result  of  all  their  efforts  ;  and  they  would  naturally 
view  with  disfavour  the  alliances  made  by  Hyrcanus 
with  other  States,  his  employment  of  mercenary  troops, 
the  appearance  of  his  own  portrait  on  the  coinage,  and 
the  evident  setting  up  of  a  monarchy  instead  of  the 
hoped-for  theocracy. 

According  to  Josephus  (Ant.,  13.  10.  5),  Hyrcanus 
consulted  them  on  one  occasion  as  to  his  Hne  of  con- 
duct ;  all  present  commended  his  actions,  except  one, 
Eleazar,  who  said  that  if  he  would  be  entirely  virtuous, 
he  must  lay  aside  the  High-Priesthood  and  be  content 
with  the  civil  power  only.  When  questioned,  Eleazar 
gave  as  his  reason  the  unsubstantiated  story  that  his 
mother  had  been  a  captive,  implying  that  Hjrrcanus 
was  not  a  lawful  son  of  Simon,  and  therefore  dis- 
qualified for  his  ofiice.  The  Sadducees  took  advantage 
of  this  insult  to  turn  Hyrcanus  against  the  Pharisees, 
and  to  accept  their  support,  and  from  this  date  the 
cleavage  between  Pharisee  and  Sadducee  was  complete, 
and  the  Pharisees  found  themselves  entangled  in 
political  controversies. 

Not  long  after,  under  Alexander  Jannaeus,  the 
second  of  Hyrcanus'  sons  to  succeed  him,  civil  war 
broke  out  and  lasted  for  six  years,  94-88,  the  Pharisees 
taking  the  side  of  the  people,  and  the  Sadducees  that  of 
the  king.  The  king  prevailed,  but  his  widow  Alexandra 
reversed  his  policy  and  made  alliance  with  the  Pharisees. 
They  had  the  support  of  the  people,  and  now  exercised 


THE  SADDUCEES  AND  PHARISEES        137 

very  great  influence  in  the  State.  At  first  they  took  an 
active  part  in  the  political  reorganisation,  and  removing 
their  Sadducee  opponents ;  and  then  they  applied 
themselves  to  revising  the  laws,  on  their  own  more 
lenient  lines,  rehabilitating  the  Sanhedrin  and  developing 
the  worship  of  the  Temple,  the  indirect  effect  of  which 
efforts  was  great,  and  was  seen  later  in  the  power  that 
they  exercised  with  later  generations.  The  Rabbis 
looked  back  to  this  as  the  Golden  Age,  when  the  grains 
of  wheat  were  as  large  as  kidneys,  barley  like  olives, 
lentils  like  golden  denarii,  and  rain  fell  regularly  on  the 
eve  of  the  Sabbath,  when  everybody  was  indoors. 

The  Sadducees  were  not  so  easily  put  down  ;  and  when 
Alexandra  died  in  69  hostilities  broke  out  again,  only  to 
be  ended  by  the  superior  power  of  Rome,  in  the  person 
of  Pompey.  But  not  ended  at  once ;  for  the  revolt 
only  smouldered  and  broke  out  again,  and  it  was  not 
until  Jerusalem  was  besieged  and  taken  that  the  matter 
was  finally  settled.     {See  p.  16  ff.) 

The  action  of  the  Pharisees  on  this  occasion  was 
instructive.  They  petitioned  Pompey  for  a  restoration 
of  their  old  form  of  government,  i.e.  by  High  Priest 
and  Sanhedrin  ;  "  in  other  words,  they  welcomed  foreign 
dominion  as  a  security  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
theocracy  in  all  its  ecclesiastical  purity."  (Fair- 
weather,  B.  G.,  167.)  Their  active  part  in  politics  was 
now  nearly  at  an  end,  and  its  last  expression  came  at 
the  beginning  of  Herod's  reign,  when  he  took  them  into 
his  confidence  and  asked  their  counsels.  This  was  a 
clever  stroke  of  his  ;  for  he  realised  their  existing  power, 
and  felt  it  necessary  to  have  it  on  his  side.    In  the 


138        THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

result  both  sides  were  strengthened  ;  Herod  was  surer 
of  the  goodwill  and  behaviour  of  the  people,  and  the 
Pharisees  were  free  to  develop  their  ecclesiastical  schemes 
under  his  patronage,  and  without  let  or  hindrance 
from  others.  The  Sadducees  had  now  long  lost  their 
political  power,  and  the  Pharisees  gladly  surrendered 
active  political  work,  content  with  their  spiritual 
ascendency.  The  ancient  quarrel  still  persisted,  but 
its  sphere  was  limited  to  the  School  and  the  Sanhedrin 
and  the  Temple-courts. 

Their  teaching  has  already  been  hinted  at  in  the 
description  of  the  Sadducees.  Josephus,  writing  as  a 
Pharisee,  describes  them  as  follows  (Ant.,  18.  1.  3)  : 
"  They  live  meanly  and  despise  delicacies  in  diet,  and 
they  follow  the  conduct  of  reason,  and  what  that  pre- 
scribes to  them  as  good  for  them,  they  do  ;  and  they 
think  they  ought  earnestly  to  strive  to  observe  reason's 
dictates  for  practice.  They  also  pay  a  respect  to  such 
as  are  in  years,  nor  are  they  so  bold  as  to  contradict 
them  in  anything  which  the}^  have  introduced.  And 
when  they  determine  that  all  things  are  done  by  fate, 
they  do  not  take  away  the  freedom  from  men  of  acting 
as  they  think  fit ;  since  their  notion  is  that  it  hath 
pleased  God  to  make  a  temperament,  whereby  what 
He  wills  is  done,  but  so  that  the  will  of  man  can  act 
virtuously  or  viciously.  They  also  beheve  that  souls 
have  an  immortal  vigour  in  them,  and  that  under  the 
earth  there  will  be  rewards  or  punishments,  according 
as  they  have  lived  virtuously  or  viciously  in  this  Hfe  ;  and 
the  latter  are  to  be  detained  in  an  everlasting  prison, 
but  that  the  former  shall  have  power  to  re^^ve  and  live 


THE  SADDUCEES  AND  PHARISEES        139 

again.  On  account  of  whicli  doctrines  they  are  able 
greatly  to  persuade  the  body  of  the  people,  and  what- 
soever they  do  about  Divine  worship,  prayers,  and 
sacrifices,  they  perform  them  according  to  their  direc- 
tion ;  insomuch  that  the  cities  give  great  attestations 
to  them  on  account  of  their  entire  virtuous  conduct, 
both  in  the  actions  of  their  lives,  and  their  discourses 
also." 

"  The  Pharisees  have  delivered  to  the  people  a  great 
many  observances  by  succession  from  their  fathers, 
which  are  not  written  in  the  laws  of  Moses  ;  and  for 
that  reason  it  is  that  the  Sadducees  reject  them,  and 
say  that  we  are  to  esteem  those  observances  to  be 
obHgatory  which  are  in  the  written  word,  but  are  not 
to  observe  what  are  derived  from  the  tradition  of  our 
forefathers,  and  concerning  these  things  it  is  that  great 
disputes  and  differences  have  arisen  among  them,  while 
the  Sadducees  are  able  to  persuade  none  but  the  rich, 
and  have  not  the  populace  obsequious  to  them,  but  the 
Pharisees  have  the  multitude  on  their  side."     (13. 10.  6.) 

Another  interesting  picture  of  them  is  given  by  the 
Psalms  of  Solomon  (given  in  Charles,  A.  and  P.,  a  work 
dating  from  about  70-40  B.C.).  We  quote  in  full  Ps.  14, 
a  beautiful  expression  of  Pharisaic  faith  and  hope  : — 

*'  Faithful  is  the   Lord  to  them  that  love  Him  in 
truth. 
To  them  that  endure  His  chastening, 
To  them  that  walk  in  the  righteousness  of  His 
commandments. 
In  the  law  which  He  commanded  us  that  we  might 
live. 


UO         THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

The  pious  of  the  Lord  shall  live  by  it  for  ever  ; 
The  Paradise   of   the  Lord,  the  trees  of  life,  are 
His  pious  ones. 
Their  planting  is  rooted  for  ever  ; 
They  shall  not  be  plucked   up  all  the  days  of 
Heaven  : 
For  the   portion   and   the    inheritance   of    God   is 

Israel. 
But  not  so  are  the  sinners  and  transgressors, 
^Vho  love  the  brief  day  spent  in  companionship 
with  their  sin  ; 
Their  delight  is  in  fleeting  corruption, 

And  they  remember  not  God. 
For  the  ways  of  men  are  known  before  Him  at  all 
times. 
And  He  knoweth  the  secrets  of  the  heart  before 
they  come  to  pass. 
Therefore  their  inheritance  is   Sheol,  and  darkness 
and  destruction, 
And  they  shall  not  be  found  in  the  day  when  the 
righteous  obtain  mercy ; 
But  the  pious  of  the  Lord  shall  inherit  life  in  glad- 
ness." 

In  this  Ps.  note  the  similarity  to  some  of  the 
Canonical  Psalms  (i.e.  1,  37,  etc.) ;  the  allusions  to  the 
Law  as  a  Way  of  Life,  and  the  security  promised  to 
those  who  walk  faithfully  in  it ;  the  "  pious  "  ones, 
i.e.  Chasidim,  used  in  a  general  and  not  a  party  sense ; 
the  foreknowledge  of  God ;  the  blessed  resurrection  of 
the  righteous,  but  not  of  the  wicked. 


THE  SADDUCEES  AND  PHARISEES         141 

In  175  ff.  there  is  a  reference  to  the  Hasmoneans,  the 
earthly  monarchy,  the  coming  of  Pompey,  and  the  taking 
of  Aristobulus  and  his  children  prisoners  to  Rome.  (See 
p.  17.) 


But,  for  our  sins,  sinners  rose  up  against  us  ; 

They  assailed  us  and  thrust  us  out ; 

What  Thou  hadst  not  promised  to  them,  they  took 

away  from  us  with  violence. 
They  in  no  wise  glorified  Thy  honourable  Name  ; 
They  set  a  worldly  monarchy  in  place  of  that  which 

was  their  excellency ; 
They  laid  waste  the  throne  of  David  in  tumultuous 
arrogance. 
But  Thou,  0  God,  didst  cast  them  down,  and  remove 
their  seed  from  the  earth. 
In  that  there  rose  up  against  them  a  man  that  was 
alien  to  our  race. 
According  to  their  sins  didst  Thou  recompense  them> 
0  God; 
So  that  it  befell  them  according  to  their  deeds. 
God  showed  them  no  pity ; 
He  sought  out  their  seed  and  let  not  one  of  them 
go  free. 
Faithful  is  the  Lord  in  all  His  judgments 

Which  He  doeth  upon  the  earth. 
The  lawless  one  laid  waste  our  land  so  that  none 
inhabited  it. 
They  destroyed  young  and  old  and  their  children 
together. 


142         THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

In  the  heat  of  His  anger  He  sent  them  away  even 
unto  the  West, 
And  He  exposed  the  rulers  of  the  land  unsparingly 
to  derision. 
Being  an  alien  the  enemy  acted  proudly, 
And  His  heart  was  alien  from  our  God.'! 

In  1723  we  have  an  expression  of  their  Messianic 
hopes  : — 

"  Behold,  0  Lord,  and  raise  up  unto  them  their 
king,  the  son  of  David, 
At  the  time  in  the  which  Thou  seest,  0  God,  that 
he  may  reign  over  Israel  Thy  servant. 
And  gird  him  with  strength,  that  he  may  shatter 
unrighteous  rulers. 
And  that  he  may  purge  Jerusalem  from  nations 
that  trample  her  down  to  destruction. 
Wisely,  righteously,  he  shall  thrust  out  sinners  from 
the  inheritance, 
He  shall  destroy  the  pride  of  the  sinner  as  a  potter's 
vessel. 
With  a  rod  of  iron  he  shall  break  in  pieces  all  their 
substance. 
He  shall  destroy  the  godless  nations  with  the 
word  of  his  mouth  ; 
At  his  rebuke  nations  shall  flee  before  him. 
And  he  shall  reprove  sinners  for  the  thoughts  of 
their  heart. 
And  he  shall  gather  together  a  holy  people,  whom  he 
shall  lead  in  righteousness, 


THE  SADDUCEES  AND  PHARISEES        143 

And   lie   shall    judge    the    tribes    of   the   people 

that   has    been    sanctified    by    the    Lord   his 

God. 
And  he  shall  not  suffer  unrighteousness  to  lodge  any 

more  in  their  midst, 
Nor  shall  there  dwell  with  them  any  man  that 

knoweth  wickedness, 
For  he  shall  know  them  that  they  are  all  sons  of 

their  God. 
And  he  shall  divide  them  according  to  their  tribes 

upon  the  land. 
And  neither  stranger  nor  alien  shall  sojourn  with 

them  any  more. 
He  shall  judge  peoples  and  nations  in  the  wisdom  of 

his  righteousness. 

And  he  shall  have  the  heathen  nations  to  serve  him 

under  his  yoke  ; 
And  he  shall  glorify  the  Lord  in  a  place  to  be  seen 

of  all  the  earth  ; 
And  he  shall  purge  Jerusalem,  making  it  holy  as 

of  old : 
So  that  nations  shall  come  from  the  ends  of  the  earth 

to  see  his  glory, 
Bringing  as  gifts  her  sons  who  had  fainted. 
And  to  see  the  glory  of  the  Lord,  wherewith  God 

hath  glorified  her. 
And  he  shall  be  a  righteous  king,  taught  of  God,  over 

them, 
And  there  shall  be  no  unrighteousness  in  his  days 

in  their  midst, 


144         THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

For  all  shall  be  holy  and  their  king  the  anointed 

of  the  Lord. 
For  he  shall  not  put  his  trust  in  horse  and  rider  and 

bow, 
Nor  shall  be  multiply  for  himself  gold  and  silver 

for  war, 
Nor  shall  he  gather  confidence  from  a  multitude 

for  the  day  of  battle. 
The  Lord  Himself  is  his  king,  the  hope  of  him  that  is 

mighty  through  his  hope  in  God." 

Notice  here  that  the  Messiah  is  to  be  of  the  Davidic 
line,  and  that  his  kingdom  is  to  be  entirely  in  this  world, 
although  of  a  spiritual  character,  and  that  the  other 
nations  are  to  be  Israel's  wondering  and  admiring 
tributaries.  The  ideal  is  thus  very  similar  to  that  of  the 
Second  Isaiah. 

In  18^^  if.  we  see  the  Pharisaic  belief  in  the  uniformity 
of  the  universe,  and  a  divine  predestination  : — 

"  Great  is  our    God    and   glorious,    dwelling   in   the 
highest. 
It  is  He  who  hath  established  in  their  courses  the 
lights  of  heaven  for  determining  seasons  from 
year  to  year, 
And  they  have  not  turned  aside  from  the  way  which 
He  appointed  them. 
In  the  fear  of  God  they  pursue  their  path  every 
day. 
From  the  day  God  created  them  and  for  evermore. 


THE  SADDUCEES  AND  PHARISEES        145 

And  they  have  not  erred  since  the  day  that  He 
created  them, 
Since  the  generations  of  old  they  have  not  with- 
drawn from  their  path, 
Unless  God  commanded  them  so  to  do  by  the 
command  of  his  Servants." 
Cf.  T.  Naphtali  2^  :    "  By  weight  and  measure  and 
rule  was  all  the  creation  made."     (Job  282^  ;  Isa.  40^2  ; 
Wisd.  1120.) 

We  may  conclude  this  account  of  Pharisees  and 
Sadducees  with  the  criticism  of  the  Rev.  F.  W.  Robertson, 
of  Brighton,  which,  if  indeed  omitting  the  good  points  of 
each,  at  least  clearly  points  out  the  results  into  which 
the  extravagances  of  each  side  led  them  : — 

"  The  Pharisees  were  men  who  rested  satisfied  with 
the  outward.  The  form  of  religion  which  varies  in  all 
ages,  that  they  wanted  to  stereotype.  The  inner  heart 
of  rehgion — the  unchangeable — ^justice — mercy — truth — 
that  they  could  not  feel.  They  had  got  their  two  schools 
of  orthodoxy — the  school  of  Shammai  and  the  school  of 
Hillel ;  and  under  the  orthodoxy  of  these  two  popular 
idols  of  the  day,  they  were  content  to  lose  their  own 
power  of  independent  thought :  souls  that  had  shrunk 
away  from  all  goodness  and  nobleness,  and  withered 
into  the  mummy  of  a  soul.  They  could  jangle  about 
the  breadth  of  a  phylactery.  They  could  discuss,  as 
if  it  were  a  matter  of  life  and  death,  ecclesiastical  ques- 
tions about  tithe.  They  could  decide  to  a  furlong  the 
length  of  journey  allowable  on  the  Sabbath  day.  But 
they  could  not  look  with  mercy  upon  a  broken  heart 
pouring  itself  out  to  God  in  His  Temple — nor  suffer  a 

K 


146         THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

hungry  man  to  rub  an  ear  of  com  on  the  Sabbath— 
nor  cover  the  shame  of  a  tempted  sister  or  an  erring 
brother.  Men  without  souls,  from  whose  narrow  hearts 
the  grandeur  of  everlasting  truth  was  shut  out. 

"  There  was  another  class  in  Israel  as  different  from 
the  Pharisees  as  man  can  be  from  man.  The  Sadducee 
could  not  be  satisfied  with  the  creed  of  Pharisaism,  and 
had  begun  to  cross-examine  its  pretensions.  They 
felt  that  the  thing  which  stood  before  them  there, 
challenging  the  exclusive  name  of  religion,  with  its 
washing  of  cups,  its  fastings,  its  parchment  texts,  this 
had  nothing  in  it  of  the  external  and  the  Infinite.  This 
comes  not  from  the  Almighty  God,  and  so  from  doubt 
they  passed  on  to  denial.  The  usual  order  had  taken 
place.  The  reaction  from  superstition  is  infideHty. 
The  reaction  from  ultra-strictness  is  laxity.  The  reaction 
from  Pharisaism  was  the  Sadducee.  And  the  Sadducee, 
with  a  dreadful  daring,  had  had  the  firmness  to  say : 
*  Well  then,  there  is  no  life  to  come.  That  is  settled. 
I  have  looked  into  the  abyss  without  trembling.  There 
is  no  phantom  there.  There  is  neither  angel,  spirit, 
nor  life  to  come.  And  this  glorious  thing,  man,  with 
his  deep  thoughts,  and  his  great,  unsatisfied  heart,  his 
sorrows  and  his  loves,  god-like  and  immortal  as  he 
seems,  is  but  dust  animated  for  a  time,  passing  into  the 
nothingness  out  of  which  he  came.'  That  cold  and 
hopeless  creed  was  the  creed  of  Sadduceeism.  Human 
souls  were  tiying  to  live  on  that,  and  find  it  enough.? 
(Sermon  on  Mt.  3^.) 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE    SCKIBES   AND  THEIR   TEACHING 

Another  familiar  and  highly  influential  group  of 
religious  teachers  were  the  Scribes.  Some  of  these  were 
Sadducees,  but  the  majority  Pharisees,  their  profession 
being  the  study  and  exposition  of  the  Law.  Their 
rise  is  also  traced  to  the  days  of  Ezra,  who  is  himself 
described  as  "  a  ready  scribe  "  (7^).  At  first  they  were 
priests,  and  Malachi  (2'^)  and  Haggai  (2^^)  both  imply 
that  the  priests  were  the  natural  exponents  of  the  Law  ; 
but  later  we  find  laymen  devoting  themselves  to  the 
work,  and  holding  much  the  same  position  as  University 
professors  at  the  present  day ;  these  were  designated 
Rabbi,  i.e.  Master.  In  1  Chron.  2^^  we  read  of 
"  families  "  or  guilds  into  which  they  formed  themselves. 
Eventually  they  became  the  repository  of  Scriptural 
learning,  the  recognised  teachers  of  the  people,  and  they 
organised  schools  and  classes  of  instruction.  To  them 
was  referred  the  decision  of  difficult  questions  about 
conduct  and  breaches  of  the  Law  (cf.  Mt.  2*,  17^^), 
so  that,  besides  scholars,  they  were  ecclesiastical  lawyers, 
jurists,  and  judges.  See  for  this  Sir.  3833,  where  the 
writer  contrasts  the  craftsman  with  the  Scribe,  and 


148  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

says  that  tlie  former  "  shall  not  be  sought  for  in  the 
council  of  the  people,  and  in  the  assembly  they  shall 
not  mount  on  high  ;  they  shall  not  sit  on  the  seat  of  the 
judge,  and  they  shall  not  understand  the  covenant  of 
judgment ;  neither  shall  they  declare  instruction  and 
judgment,  and  where  parables  are  they  shall  not  be 
found  "  ;  all  of  which,  it  is  implied,  are  the  prerogative 
of  the  Scribe.  In  the  New  Testament  are  mentioned 
*'  lawyers  "  and  "  teachers  of  the  law,"  and  our  Lord 
says  that  they  "  sit  on  Moses's  seat "  (Mt.  232),  i^^  jq 
the  place  of  supreme  authority. 

Their  existence  as  a  definite  and  recognised  body  is 
not  apparent  until  the  days  of  the  Maccabees,  i.e, 
until  the  second  century  B.C.  In  1  Mace.  7^2  ^q  fj^j 
them  in  connection  with  the  Chasidim,  and  the  attempt 
of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  to  Hellenise  the  people  un- 
doubtedly intensified  their  adherence  to  the  Law  and 
drew  their  ranks  closer.  PoUtical  ambitions  on  the 
one  part  encouraged  the  theocratic  ideal  and  ecclesi- 
asticism  on  the  other.  2  Mace.  6^^  describes  the  martjn:- 
dom  of  Eleazar,  an  aged  Scribe  of  ninety  years  old, 
who  refused  to  eat  swine's  flesh  or  in  any  way  dissemble 
his  convictions. 

From  this  period  onwards  their  sympathies  are 
almost  entirely  Pharisaic  {see  Mk.  2^^  ;  Acts  23^,  "  Scribes 
of  the  Pharisees " ;  Lk.  5^0,  "  Pharisees  and  their 
Scribes ") ;  although,  as  the  Sadducees  upheld  the 
Written  Law,  there  must  have  been  Sadducee  Scribes  as 
well ;  and  doubtless  there  were  Scribes  who  were 
independent  scholars,  and  belonged  to  no  party. 

As  lawyers  and  judges  they  possessed  indirectly  great 


THE  SCRIBES  AND  THEIR  TEACHING      149 

power  and  influence  with  the  people  ;  and  from  the 
time  of  John  Hyrcanus  (135-105)  or  Alexandra  Salome 
(78-70)  they  were  admitted  to  a  place  in  the  Sanhedrin, 
which  gave  them  a  certain  amount  of  executive  power. 
But  their  knowledge  of  the  Law  and  their  position  as 
teachers  and  consultants  was  their  chief  source  of 
influence.  It  was  their  business  to  apply  the  Law  to 
the  details  and  conditions  of  every-day  life ;  they 
"  bound  and  loosed,"  i.e.  declared  what  was  forbidden 
and  what  permitted ;  they  were  the  spiritual  directors 
of  the  people,  the  keepers  of  their  consciences  ;  and 
their  power  of  casuistry  was  in  consequence  amazing. 
Of  their  teaching  something  will  be  said  presently  {see 

p.  150  if.). 

They  were  also  teachers,  and  taught  in  the  porticoes 
of  the  Temple  and  in  schools  and  academies,  where 
they  trained  students  to  walk  in  their  footsteps,  and  to 
hand  on  with  the  strictest  verbal  accuracy  the  teaching 
which  they  had  themselves  received,  or  professed  to 
have  received,  from  their  predecessors.  "  To  him  that 
forgets  a  precept  it  is  accounted  by  the  Scribe  as  if  he 
had  forfeited  his  own  life  " — "  Every  one  is  bound  to 
teach  in  the  exact  words  of  his  teacher  "  ;  these  were 
two  maxims  of  the  schools,  and  this  strictness  would 
increase  the  respect  felt  for  them. 

This  respect  was  demanded  by  and  everywhere 
accorded  to  them.  "  Let  the  honour  of  thy  disciple 
be  dear  unto  thee  as  the  honour  of  thy  associate  ;  and 
the  honour  of  thine  associate  as  the  fear  of  thy  teacher  ; 
and  the  fear  of  thy  teacher  as  the  fear  of  Heaven  " 
(P.  Aboth  4^5).     They  were  to  be  assisted  before  parents 


150         THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

and  their  claims  respected  first.  *'  Even  priests  and 
aristocracy  bowed  to  their  authority "  (Fairweather, 
B.  G.,  p.  70  n.) ;  cf.  our  Lord's  strictures  in  Mt.  235""  ; 
and  Sir.  3723,  26  ;  3833,  392. 

It  has  been  said  that  they  were  not  allowed  to 
take  fees  for  their  teaching,  but  were  required  to  support 
themselves  by  a  trade.  But  our  Lord  speaks  of  them 
as  "  devouring  widows'  houses  "  (Mk.  12^0 ) ;  and  St. 
Luke  says  that  the  Pharisees,  at  all  events,  were  "  lovers 
of  money "  (16i^).  Jewish  casuistry  was  more  than 
equal  to  taking  fees  and  explaining  them  away. 

In  their  teaching  they  aimed  at  a  strict  and  rigid 
uniformity,  so  that  the  way  of  life  might  be  absolutely 
clear  and  definite,  and  the  teaching  of  the  Law  clear 
and  without  ambiguity.  In  practice,  however,  the 
differences  of  temperament,  point  of  view,  and  experience, 
natural  to  human  character,  found  expression,  and 
occasionally  there  were  serious  disputes,  in  which  the 
grave  and  learned  doctors  of  the  Law  would  not  scruple 
to  come  to  blows  with  each  other.  The  School  of  Hillel, 
e.g.,  was  broader  and  more  sympathetic  than  that  of 
Shammai ;  and  although  the  differences  were  really 
very  slight,  they  were  acutely  felt,  and  the  Jerusalem 
Talmud  describes  ''  a  dark  day,  like  that  on  which  the 
golden  calf  was  made ;  the  Shammaites  killed  some 
of  the  Hillelites."  (Cf.  Fairweather,  B.  G.,  pp.  189, 
375.) 

This  uniformity  tended  in  their  hands  to  make 
religion  merely  a  mechanical  habit,  the  doing  of  certain 
things  and  the  not  doing  of  others.  Life  to  them  was 
supposed  to  be  simplified  by  being  brought  under  fixed 


THE  SCRIBES  AND  THEIR  TEACHING     151 

rules ;  in  practice  the  rules  were  so  numerous  as  to  be 
a  "  burden  grievous  to  be  borne,"  and  the  spirit  of  true 
religion  was  killed  by  the  slavish  insistence  on  the 
letter.  To  the  Scribes,  "  Religion  was  not  a  communion 
of  man  with  God,  but  a  legally  correct  walk  before 
God."  (Hastings,  D.  B.,  iv.,  p.  4:20a,)  Hohness  meant 
not  so  much  a  doing  good  as  avoiding  evil.  They  main- 
tained the  spirit  of  the  Decalogue,  in  which  only  two 
of  the  commandments  are  positive,  the  rest  beginning 
with  the  words,  "  Thou  shalt  not " 

The  written  Law  had  613  separate  commands, 
each  of  which  was  binding  on  the  Jew.  And  because 
new  conditions  had  arisen,  and  because  life  was  so  varied 
and  so  multiform,  the  Scribes  attempted  to  apply  the 
principles  of  the  written  Law  to  the  inconceivably 
numerous  situations  in  which  a  Jew  would  daily  find 
himself  and  need  to  know  how  to  act.  This  body  of 
oral  teaching  was  known  as  Halacha,  or  "  The  Way," 
and  was  held  as  binding  as  the  written  Law,  being  said 
to  have  been  given  on  Sinai  to  Moses,  and  handed  down 
by  him  to  Joshua,  and  so  to  the  elders,  prophets,  and 
Scribes. 

In  addition  they  "made  a  fence  about  the  Law," 
by  laying  down  regulations  for  situations  that  might 
arise,  so  that  if  a  man  was  careful  he  might  never  be 
the  least  in  danger  of  breaking  the  Law.  And  when 
a  situation  arose  which  was  unprovided  for,  it  was  referred 
to  them  to  decide  what  ought  to  be  done. 

Their  regulations  were  concerned  mainly  with  reHgious 
and  ecclesiastical  habits  and  duties,  fasting,  almsgiving, 
sacrifices,    Sabbath    observance,    Temple    and    priestly 


152         THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

dues,  ceremonial  purity ;  moral  matters  were  in  the 
second  place  ;  by  dedicating  his  property  as  "  Corban  " 
a  man  might  relieve  himself  of  responsibility  towards 
his  parents  for  maintenance  ;  the  Scribes  tithed  mint 
and  anise  and  cummin,  and  left  undone  the  weightier 
matters  of  the  Law,  judgment,  and  mercy,  and  faith 
(Mt.  154 ;   2323). 

To  the  careful  keeper  of  the  Law  reward  was  assured  : 
"  Whosoever  fulfils  the  Law  in  poverty  will  at  length 
fulfil  it  in  wealth.  ...  If  thou  labourest  in  the  Law, 
He  hath  much  reward  to  give  thee  "  (P.  Aboth,  4^^,  12). 
But  no  promise  of  reward  could  ever  have  enabled  the 
most  anxious  Jew  to  keep  the  Law  in  its  entirety  (cf. 
Rom.  83  ;  Heb.  7^^),  and  even  the  Scribes  had  to  revert 
to  quibbles  in  order  to  save  their  face  (Mt.  23^^).  And 
while  professing  that  the  Oral  Law  interpreted  the 
Written,  actually  it  was  the  tradition  that  made  void 
the  word  of  God  (  Mt.  IS^). 

And  holiness,  besides  being  dependent  on  the  keeping 
of  the  Law,  was  for  that  reason  also  dependent  on  know- 
ledge ;  so  that  no  one  without  prolonged  study  could 
ever  hope  to  fulfil  it.  And  so  Hillel  said  that  "  an 
ignorant  man  cannot  be  pious,"  and  learning  and  piety 
came  to  be  convertible  terms.  This  meant  that,  for 
the  ordinary  person,  the  keeping  of  the  Law  and  its 
consequent  reward  were  out  of  the  question,  although 
it  certainly  was  productive  of  much  good  in  the  care 
bestowed  upon  the  education  of  the  Jewish  youth. 

Besides,  as  is  evident,  the  insistence  on  the  Law  and 
obedience  to  the  Scribes  opened  the  way  to  much  abuse, 
and,  as  already  stated,  under  their  influence  rehgion 


THE  SCRIBES  AND  THEIR  TEACHING      153 

tended  to  become  mechanical,  and  morality  to  be  dis- 
regarded. If  righteousness  consists  in  the  fulfilling  of 
certain  external,  formal  obligations,  a  perfection 
based  on  this  ideal  must  tend  to  self-complacency  and 
indifference  to  the  "  weightier "  matters  of  conduct, 
and  a  rule  of  life  will  degenerate  into  petty  casuistry. 
And  so  far  from  satisfying,  it  could  only  add  a  burden 
to  the  conscience  ;  and  so  St.  Paul  complained  that  the 
Law  only  taught  him  what  sin  was,  and  gave  him  no 
deKvery  from  it  (Rom.  V^).  It  might  be  the  slave-boy 
to  lead  the  pupil  to  school  (Gal.  32*),  but  it  could  go  no 
farther.  ''  The  Law  made  nothing  perfect  "  (Heb.  T^^) ; 
it  was  barren  and  lifeless. 

This  devotion  to  the  Law,  encouraged  by  the  Scribes, 
was  the  natural  outcome  of  Jewish  tradition.  The 
Jewish  religion  was  confessedly  a  covenant  religion, 
dating  from  the  giving  of  the  Decalogue  to  Moses  on 
Mount  Sinai.  This  gift  was  the  sign  that  Jehovah  had 
chosen  Israel,  and  the  keeping  of  the  Law  was  the  con- 
dition of  Jehovah's  goodwill  and  protection.  (Cf. 
Exod.  19^,  ^  :  "  Now  therefore,  if  ye  will  obey  my 
voice  indeed,  and  keep  My  covenant,  then  ye  shall 
be  a  peculiar  treasure  unto  me  from  among  all  peoples  ; 
for  all  the  earth  is  mine  :  and  ye  shall  be  unto  me  a 
kingdom  of  priests,  and  an  holy  nation."  Also  cf. 
243  ff.)  The  book  of  Deuteronomy  may  be  described 
as  an  exhortation  to  the  keeping  of  the  Law  {see  especially 
Deut.  4  ;  and  cf.  2  Kings  23^,  3),  where  the  Book  of  the 
Law  found  by  Hilkiah  has  been  identified  with 
Deuteronomy  :  "  And  the  king  .  .  .  read  in  their  ears 
all  the  words  of  the  book  of  the  covenant  which  was  found 


154         THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

in  the  house  of  the  Lord.  And  the  king  stood  by  the 
pillar,  and  made  a  covenant  before  the  Lord,  to  walk 
after  the  Lord,  and  to  keep  His  Commandments  and 
His  testimonies  and  His  statutes,  with  all  his  heart, 
and  all  his  soul,  to  confirm  the  words  of  this  covenant 
that  were  written  in  this  book  :  and  all  the  people  stood 
to  the  covenant."  In  Jer.  SPi  God  speaks  of  the 
"  New  Covenant "  which  He  will  make,  writing  it  in 
His  people's  hearts  instead  of  on  the  Tables  of  stone. 
In  Neh.  8,  9,  we  learn  how  Ezra  read  the  Law  to  the 
returned  exiles,  and  how  they  pledged  themselves  again 
to  keep  it. 

In  fact  we  have  ample  expressions  of  their  devotion 
to  the  Law  all  the  way  down  their  history.  It  must 
suffice  to  refer  to  Ps.  1,  an  admirable  summary  of  the 
Jewish  ideal  and  hope  ;  Ps.  119,  an  "  acrostic  "  psalm, 
entirely  devoted  to  the  praise  of  the  Law,  and  the  keeping 
of  it ;  Sir.  2423,  "  All  these  things  are  the  book  of  the 
covenant  of  the  Most  High  God,  even  the  Law  which 
Moses  commanded  us  for  a  heritage  unto  the  assemblies 
of  Jacob  "  ;  4  Ezra  9^1,  "  Behold,  I  sow  my  Law 
in  you,  and  it  shall  bring  forth  fruit  in  you,  and  ye  shall 
be  glorified  in  it  for  ever  "  ;  14^2,  "  The  things  that  were 
written  in  Thy  Law  in  you,  and  it  shall  bring  forth  fruit 
in  you,  and  ye  shall  be  glorified  in  it  for  ever  '*' ;  14^2, 
'*  The  things  that  were  written  in  Thy  Law,  that  men  may 
be  able  to  find  the  path,  and  that  they  which  would  live 
in  the  latter  days  may  live  "  ;  Baruch  4^,  "  This  is  the 
book  of  the  commandments  of  God,  and  the  Law  that 
endureth  for  ever  :  all  they  that  hold  it  fast  are  appointed 
to  life  :   but  such  as  leave  it  shall  die."    The  Book  of 


THE  SCRIBES  AND  THEIR  TEACHING      155 

Jubilees  is  a  commentary  (on  Genesis),  upholding  the 
ritual  enactments  of  the  Law,  and  expressed  in  forcible 
language.  ^'  Judith  "  illustrates  the  power  of  one  who 
kept  the  Law,  in  the  face  of  great  dangers  and  difficulties. 
Cf.  alsoa  saying  of  Hillel  (P.  Aboth.  2^),  "Much  law,  much 
life  "  ;  and  Josephus  (C.  Apion.  2.  39),  "  Though  we 
be  deprived  of  our  own  wealth,  of  our  cities,  or  of  the 
other  advantages  we  have,  om'  Law  continues  immortal." 
In  character  the  keeping  of  the  Law  meant  the 
obeying  of  certain  prescribed  regulations,  so  that  from 
the  beginning  there  was  the  germ  of  the  legalism  which 
killed  the  spirit  of  true  rehgion,  bound  heavy  burdens 
grievous,  and  in  fact  impossible  to  be  borne,  substituted 
ritualism  for  morahty,  devotions  for  devotion.  The 
prophets  saw  this  clearly  ;  and  we  have  some  outspoken 
denunciations  of  the  keeping  of  the  letter  at  the  expense 
of  the  spirit.  Micah  grandly  says  (6^) :  "  Wherewith 
shall  I  come  before  the  Lord,  and  bow  myself  before  the 
High  God  ?  Shall  I  come  before  Him  with  burnt- 
ofEerings,  with  calves  of  a  year  old  ?  Will  the  Lord  be 
pleased  with  thousands  of  rams,  or  with  ten  thousands  of 
rivers  of  oil  ?  Shall  I  give  my  firstborn  for  my  trans- 
gression, the  fruit  of  my  body  for  the  sin  of  my  soul  ? 
He  hath  showed  thee,  0  man,  what  is  good  ;  and  what 
doth  the  Lord  require  of  thee,  but  to  do  justly,  and  to  love 
mercy,  and  to  walk  humbly  with  thy  God  ?  "  The 
condenmation  was  even  as  old  as  Samuel :  "  To  obey  is 
better  than  sacrifice,  and  to  hearken  than  the  fat  of 
rams  "  (1  Sam.  1522,  cf .  Hos.  6^  "  I  desire  mercy,  and  not 
sacrifice  ;  and  the  knowledge  of  God  more  than  burnt- 
ofierings  ").    Similar  sentiments  are  found   in  Ps.  50, 


156  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

Isa.  P^  ff.,  and  Mai.  1.  Jeremiah  is  careful  to  show  the 
need  of  a  spiritual  religion  (3133),  ^i^d  Ezekiel  the  need 
of  a  new  heart  (3626). 

But  Ezekiel  is  also  the  spokesman  of  the  opposite 
and  ultimately  prevailing  tendency,  which  tried  to 
reduce  everything  to  set  terms.  His  careful  and  precise 
regulations  for  the  worship  of  the  Sanctuary  are  parallel 
only  to  the  elaborate  and  amazing  regulations  for  daily 
life,  for  which  the  Scribes  were  afterwards  notorious 
and  the  Herodian  age  largely  responsible. 

The  chief  duties  of  the  devout  man  were  prayer, 
fasting,  and  almsgiving ;  and  thus  Simon  the  Just 
(High  Priest  about  300  B.C.)  is  credited  with  saying  : 
*'  The  world  is  stayed  on  three  things — the  Law,  Worship, 
and  the  doing  of  kindnesses,"  no  mean  expression  of  the 
truth,  denoting  God's  revelation  to  man,  man's  response 
to  God,  and  man's  love  to  his  fellow-men. 

The  rule  for  prayer  was  three  times  a  day,  and  grace 
at  meals  ;  cf .  Ps.  55^'^,  "  Evening,  morning,  and  at  noon- 
day, will  I  complain  and  moan  ;  and  He  shall  hear 
my  voice  "  ;  and  it  was  Daniel's  adherence  to  this  practice 
that  gave  his  enemies  the  decision  that  they  wanted 
against  him  (see  Dan.  6).  The  "  Book  of  the  Secrets 
of  Enoch  "  (contemporary  with  our  Lord)  says  :  "  It  is 
good  to  go  morning,  midday,  and  evening  into  the  Lord's 
dwelling,  for  the  glory  of  your  Creator  "  (51* ;  cf.  Acts 
2^^,  3^,  10^).  Prayer  was  thus  one  of  the  means  by  which 
ostentatious  Pharisees  advertised  their  piety  (Mt.  6-^) ; 
and  it  was  customary  for  teachers  to  teach  their  pupils 
forms  and  methods  of  prayer  (Lk.  W). 


THE  SCRIBES  AND  THEIR  TEACHING      157 

Fasting  was  as  essential.  There  were  regular  set 
fasts,  sucli  as  the  Day  of  Atonement,  the  anniversaries 
of  the  entry  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Chaldeans,  of  the 
destruction  of  the  Temple,  of  the  beginning  of  the  siege 
by  Nebuchadnezzar.  And,  besides  these,  occasions  of 
private  grief  and  the  desire  for  repentance  were  marked  by 
fasting  (see  2  Sam.  12i6,  21-23^  1  Kings  2127,  Neh.  1^,  Dan. 
93  ;  and  cf .  Tobit  128,  1  ]y[acc.  3^7,  2  Mace.  I312,  Isa.  583 
&.,  Jer.  1410,  Zech.  7,  8).  It  was  considered  a  meritorious 
act,  and  one  productive  both  of  material  and  spiritual 
blessing,  and  a  means  of  obtaining  answers  to  prayer. 
The  Patriarchs  in  the  "  Testaments  "  frequently  exhort 
their  children  to  follow  their  example  in  this,  and  hold  it 
up  as  a  reason  for  their  prosperity.  (See  T.  Reuben  1^^, 
T.  Simeon  3^,  T.  Judah  15^,  192,  T.  Issachar  7^,  T. 
Joseph  34,  IQi.) 

In  the  New  Testament  we  read  of  Anna  serving  God 
in  prayers  and  fastings  night  and  day  (Lk.  2^'').  The 
Pharisee  in  the  parable  held  his  fasts  up  as  meritorious 
in  God's  eyes  (Lk.  18^2) .  It  was  the  custom  for  fasting 
to  be  included  in  the  rule  of  life  imposed  by  a  teacher  on 
his  disciples  (Mk.  2^^) ;  and  our  Lord  recognised  this  and 
upheld  it,  but  insisted  that  the  fast  should  be  genuine 
and  private  (Mt.  6^^).  The  Early  Church  fasted  on 
solemn  and  important  occasions  (Acts  I32,  14:23),  and  St. 
Paul  alludes  to  his  own  practice  (2  Cor.  6^,  112^). 

The  third  rule  was  that  of  almsgiving  and  good  works, 
and  it  is  noticeable  that  in  this  case  also  an  equivalent 
reward  was  promised.  (Was  not  the  Jew  ever  shrewd 
at  making  a  bargain,  true  to  his  forefather  Jacob  ? 
see  Gen.  282 0.)    xhus  Tobit  enjoins  his  son  :  *'  Give  alms 


158  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

of  Thy  substance  :  and  wlien  thou  givest  alms  let  not 
thine  eye  be  envious  :  turn  not  away  thy  face  from  any 
poor  man,  and  the  face  of  God  shall  not  be  turned  away 
from  thee.  As  thy  substance  is,  give  alms  of  it  according 
to  thine  abundance  :  if  thou  have  little,  be  not  afraid 
to  give  alms  according  to  that  little  :  for  thou  layest  up 
a  good  treasure  for  thyself  against  the  day  of  necessity  : 
because  alms  delivereth  from  death,  and  suffereth  not  to 
come  into  darkness."  (4^,  cf .  l^  U^o,  Wisd  3^5,  Sir.  330, 
"  almsgiving  will  make  atonement  for  sins  "  ;  T^^  ;  the 
Zadokites  prescribed  two  days'  wages  in  the  month  as 
the  rule  ;  Zadok.  Frag.  18^.  This,  again,  throws  light 
on  the  motive  of  our  Lord's  teaching  about  alms  in  Mt.  62, 
that  they  shall  be  secret,  Uke  fastings  ;  and  on  the 
parable  of  the  Pharisee  and  the  Publican  (Lk.  1812).) 

The  doing  of  kindnesses  must  usually  involve  the 
spending  of  money ;  and  Sirach,  in  a  beautiful  chapter 
(29),  upholds  the  practice,  even  if  he  backs  it  with  the 
usual  promise  of  "  interest."  "  Help  a  poor  man  for  the 
commandment's  sake  ;  and  according  to  his  need  send 
him  not  empty  away.  Lose  thy  money  for  a  brother 
and  a  friend ;  and  let  it  not  rust  under  the  stone  to  be 
lost.  Bestow  thy  treasure  according  to  the  commands 
of  the  Most  High,  and  it  shall  profit  thee  more  than 
gold.  Shut  up  alms  in  thy  storechambers,  and  it  shall 
deliver  thee  out  of  all  affliction  :  it  shall  fight  for  thee 
against  thine  enemy  better  than  a  mighty  shield  and  a 
ponderous  spear."  But  giving  and  help  were  not  to  be 
indiscriminate  ;  *'  Give  to  the  godly  man,  and  help  not 
the  sinner  "  (124). 

With  this  last  injunction  we  may  compare  Mt.  5*3  fp. ; 


THE  SCRIBES  AND  THEIR  TEACHING     159 

"  Ye  have  heard  that  it  was  said,  Thou  shalt  love  thy 
neighbour,  and  hate  thine  enemy  ;  but  I  say  unto  you, 
Love  your  enemies,"  etc.  And  everywhere  in  the  New 
Testament  the  doctrine  of  salvation  by  works  is  con- 
demned. The  rich  young  man  asked  what  he  should 
do  that  he  might  have  eternal  life  (Mt.  19^^).  After  the 
feeding  of  the  five  thousand,  the  people  asked  what  they 
must  do  that  they  might  work  the  works  of  God ;  to 
which  our  Lord  answered,  "  believe "  (Jn.  G^S).  In 
exactly  the  same  way  the  gaoler  at  Philippi  cried  out, 
"  What  must  I  do  to  be  saved  ?  "  (Acts  1630.)  St. 
James  quite  rightly  insisted  that  faith  without  works 
is  dead  (2i^  f!.),  doubtless  owing  largely  to  his  Jewish 
upbringing  ;  but  St.  Paul,  "  a  Pharisee  of  the  Pharisees,'* 
was  granted  the  vision  to  see  that  salvation  must  be  by 
faith  and  not  by  works,  which  were  dead  and  barren. 
(Cf.  Rom.  320,  116 .  Qal.  32 ;  Eph.  2^ ;  2  Tim.  P ;  Tit.  3^ ; 
Heb.  61,  914.) 

The  popular  Book  of  Devotion  was  the  Psalter,  justly 
endeared  also  to  members  of  the  Christian  Church  ;  and 
in  the  Psalter  we  naturally  find  much  direct  teaching 
for  the  benefit  and  direction  of  those  who  would  be 
"godly."  Passages  are  so  numerous  as  to  be  beyond 
full  quotation  or  even  reference  ;  but  we  give  one  or  two 
in  illustration  of  the  points  mentioned.  A  holij  fear  was 
the  basis  of  all  good  hving  (2^^,  "  Serve  the  Lord  with 
fear,  and  rejoice  unto  Him  with  trembling,"  cf.  119^20^ 
Isa.  112);  and  this  fear  removed  all  other  fear  (9P, 
**  Thou  shalt  not  be  afraid  for  the  terror  by  night,  nor 
for  the  arrow  that  flieth  by  day  ").    Consequently,  the 


160  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

godly  man  had  and  must  have  an  unfailing  trust  in  God, 
in  His  goodness  and  His  power,  and  the  ultimate  pre- 
valence of  good  over  evil  (20',  "  Some  trust  in  chariots 
and  some  in  horses,  but  we  will  make  mention  of  the 
Lord  our  God  "  ;  146^,  "  Put  not  your  trust  in  princes,  nor 
in  the  son  of  man,  in  whom  there  is  no  help  ;  .  .  .  Happy 
is  he  that  hath  the  God  of  Jacob  for  his  help,  whose  hope 
is  in  the  Lord  his  God  ").  A  sense  of  the  awful  majesty 
of  God  was  fitting,  and  a  man  must  be  humble.  (39^, 
"  I  was  dumb,  I  opened  not  my  mouth,  because  Thou 
didst  it  "  ;  7322,  "  Sq  brutish  was  I,  and  ignorant,  I  was 
as  a  beast  before  Thee.")  He  designates  himself  as 
"  poor  and  needy  "  (12^,  37 1*) ;  and  realises  the  wrong 
and  the  folly  of  self-dependence  (30^) ;  and  keeps  his 
soul  like  "  a  weaned  child  "  (1312). 

Inwardly  he  meditates  in  God's  Law  day  and  night 
(12),  and  keeps  it  in  his  heart  (37^1,  40^).  It  is  his  chief 
delight,  his  greatest  treasure,  the  ground  of  his  hope,  the 
light  of  his  daily  path  (119).  Outwardly,  he  2^raises  God 
and  declares  his  faith  (1191gi,  20',  3b^\  92^),  and  tells 
others  of  it  (40^^).  He  jprays  at  home  in  private,  making 
his  bed  to  swim,  and  watering  his  couch  at  night  with 
tears  for  his  sin  (6^) ;  and  observing  the  three  set  hours 
of  prayer  (55^^).  He  bears  his  witness  among  his  fellow- 
men  to  the  joy  and  truth  and  help  of  what  he  has 
experienced  (11913,  46)^  (Por  the  use  of  the  Psalter,  cf. 
Fairweather,  B.  G.,  p.  72  fi.) 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  virtues  and  practices 
recommended  are  the  gentler,  passive,  and  negative 
ones :  i.e.  the  godly  shield  themselves  under  the  habit 


THE  SCRIBES  AND  THEIR  TEACHING     161 

of  regular  observance,  and  ensure  a  blessing  by  their 
behaviour.  The  type  of  religion  is  artificial  and  cloister- 
bred  ;  it  can  only  flourish  where  conditions  are  favourable  ; 
it  cannot  conquer  the  world  ;  if  the  world  and  the  ungodly 
are  powerful  and  oppressive,  it  retreats  timidly  into  its 
shell,  "  until  the  tyranny  be  over-past  "  ;  it  is  calculating 
and  cautious,  selfish  even  ;  there  is  nothing  of  the  heroic, 
of  the  risking  all  for  a  noble  cause  for  the  sake  of  others, 
no  willingness  to  perish  that  another  may  be  saved. 
Consequently,  Pharisaism  tended  to  be  narrow,  and 
lacking  in  freedom  and  independence  and  courage. 
(Cf.  Fairweather,  B.  G.,  p.  18.) 

Of  this  school  of  teaching  Sirach  is  a  good  exponent. 
He  upholds  the  ideal  of  filial  piety  and  general  quiet 
domesticity,  i.e.  a  "  pure  religion  breathing  household 
laws."  "  He  that  honoureth  his  father  shall  make 
atonement  for  sins  ;  and  he  that  giveth  glory  to  his 
mother  is  as  one  that  layeth  up  treasure.  Whoso 
honoureth  his  father  shall  have  joy  of  his  children  ;  and 
in  the  day  of  his  prayer  he  shall  be  heard  "  (S^  5) 
"  Happy  is  the  husband  of  a  good  wife,  and  the  number  of 
his  days  shall  be  twofold.  A  brave  woman  rejoiceth 
her  husband,  and  he  shall  fulfil  his  years  in  peace.  A 
good  wife  is  a  good  portion  :  she  shall  be  given  in  the 
portion  of  such  as  fear  the  Lord.  .  .  .  Keep  strict  watch 
on  a  headstrong  daughter,  lest  she  find  liberty  for  herself, 
and  use  it  "  (26i-3,  lO). 

A  man  should  be  industrious  and  orderly,  respect  the 
proprieties,  and  be  generally  dutiful.  *'  Hate  not 
laborious  work,  neither  husbandry,  which  the  Most  High 
hath  ordained  "  (7^^).     "  My  son,  let  thy  tears  fall  over 

L 


162  THE  CEADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

the  dead,  and  as  one  that  suffereth  grievously  make 
lamentation ;  and  wind  up  his  body  according  to  his 
due,  and  neglect  not  his  burial.  Make  bitter  weeping, 
and  make  passionate  wailing,  and  let  thy  mourning  be 
according  to  his  desert,  for  one  day  or  two,  lest  thou  be 
evil  spoken  of :  and  so  be  comforted  for  thysorrow(38^^if.). 
Due  and  proper  respect  should  be  shown  for  the 
priesthood.  "  Fear  the  Lord  with  all  thy  soul,  and 
reverence  his  priests.  With  all  thy  strength  love  Him 
that  made  thee,  and  forsake  not  His  ministers.  Fear 
the  Lord,  and  glorify  the  priest,  and  give  him  his  por- 
tion even  as  it  is  commanded  thee,  the  firstfruits,  and 
the  trespass  offering,  and  the  gift  of  the  shoulders,  and 
the  sacrifice  of  sanctification,  and  the  firstfruits  of  holy 
things."    (729  :  cf.  U^\  35\  3S^\) 

Besides  the  interpretation  of  the  Law  and  its  ap- 
phcation  to  daily  life,  the  Scribes  also  busied  themselves 
with  the  interpretation  of  the  historical  portions  of  the 
Old  Testament.  This  has  received  the  title  of  Haggada, 
or  "  narrative."  Into  it  entered  much  legend  and  em- 
belhshment,  and  it  frequently  consisted  in  the  rewriting 
of  history  in  the  light  and  to  serve  the  views  of  a  later 
age.  E.g.,  the  two  Books  of  Chronicles  are  found,  on 
examination,  to  diiTer  considerably  from  those  of  Kings, 
and  it  is  generally  held  now  that  they  represent  the  views 
of  Scribes,  writing  somewhere  in  the  early  part  of  the 
third  century,  B.C.,  300-250.  They,  with  "  Ezra,"  and 
*'  Nehemiah,"  form  one  complete  work,  and  are  not 
history  so  much  as  didactic  works  in  which  the  history 
is  made  to  serve  the  purposes  of  religion. 


THE  SCRIBES  AND  THEIR  TEACHING     163 

There  are  several  traces  of  this  Haggada  in  the  New 
Testament,  e.g. : — 

In  2  Tim.  3^  St.  Paul  refers  to  "  Jannes  and  Jambres 
who  withstood  Moses."  They  are  the  Egyptian  magi- 
cians mentioned,  but  not  named,  in  Exod.  7^^.  One 
name  occurs  in  Zadok.  Frag.,  7^^,  and  both  are 
mentioned  in  the  Talmud  (Menach.  85a) ;  and  there  was 
probably  a  small  book  bearing  the  names  as  a  title,  as 
mentioned  by  Origen  on  Mt.  2V. 

In  1  Cor.  10*  he  speaks  of  the  rock  that  followed 
the  Israehtes  in  the  wilderness.  This,  again,  is  no  part 
of  the  canonical  narrative,  but  is  found  in  the  Targums 
of  Onkelos  and  Jonathan. 

In  Acts  753,  Gal.  3l^  Heb.  22,  it  is  said  that  the 
Law  was  given  through  angels.  This  is  described  in 
the  Book  of  Jubilees,  127 :  "  And  He  said  to  the  angel 
of  the  presence  :  Write  for  Moses  from  the  beginning 
of  the  creation  till  My  sanctuary  has  been  built  among 
them  for  all  eternity.  .  .  .  And  the  angel  of  the  presence 
who  went  before  the  camp  of  Israel  took  the  tables 
of  the  divisions  of  the  years — from  the  time  of  the 
creation — of  the  law  and  of  the  testimony  of  the  weeks 
of  the  jubilees,  etc.,  etc." 

In  Lk.  425,  Jas.  5^*^,  the  length  of  the  famine  in 
the  time  of  Elijah  (1  Kings  17^)  is  given  as  "  three  years 
and  six  months."  In  the  Old  Testament  the  only  note 
of  time  is  "  many  days  "  and  "  the  third  year  "  (18^). 
The  fuller  details  are  given  in  "  Jalkut  Simeoni "  on 
1  Kings  16. 

In  Jude  9  reference  is  made  to  a  dispute  between  the 
archangel  Michael  and  the  devil,  over  the  body  of  Moses. 


161         THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITy 

This  legend  St.  Jude  obtained  from  "  The  Assumption 
of  Moses."    (See  Charles,  A.  and  P.,  II.,  p.  408  n.) 

In  Heb.  7  Melchizedek  is  described  as  being  without 
"  beginning  of  days  nor  end  of  Hfe,"  and  having  no 
parents  or  genealogy.  Of  this  there  is  not  a  word  in 
Gen.  14. 

In  Gal.  422  we  have  an  example  of  Jewish  allegorising 
of  the  Old  Testament  narrative  ;  also  in  Rom.  10*,  and 
Heb.  7  already  mentioned. 

The  books  of  Enoch,  Judith,  and  Tobit  are  all 
examples  of  the  writing  up  of  history  with  a  moral  and 
didactic  purpose.  The  two  latter  are  short,  and  of 
course  available  in  our  "  Apocrypha." 

The  Book  of  Jubilees  is  a  Midrash  or  commentary  on 
Genesis,  dating  153-105,  from  a  Pharisaic  hand,  and 
some  of  the  interpretations  and  applications  are  truly 
marvellous.  Thus,  to  name  only  one  or  two,  in  3^  if. 
the  rules  for  purification  after  childbirth  are  based  upon 
the  dates  of  various  events  in  Paradise.  It  is  stated 
that  up  to  the  Fall  all  the  animals  could  converse  and  had 
a  common  language  (328).  The  covenant  with  Noah  is 
taken  as  the  basis  of  that  made  with  Moses,  about  the 
non-eating  of  blood  (6^^).  It  is  said  that  the  Feast  of 
Weeks  was  kept  in  heaven  from  the  creation  until  the 
death  of  Noah  (6^^).  And  the  division  of  the  earth 
among  the  sons  of  Noah  is  not  unnaturally  given  as 
the  justification  for  the  invasion  of  Palestine  (812  ff.). 
In  9^^  the  author  discreetly  passes  over  the  incident  with 
Abimelech  in  Gen.  20 ;  and  the  institution  of  the  Feast 
of  Tabernacles  is  ascribed  to  the  birth  of  Isaac.  In  21 
Abraham  gives   Isaac  his   dying  injunctions   about   a 


THE  SCRIBES  AND  THEIR  TEACHING      165 

number  of  ritual  observations,  which  are,  however, 
paralleled  in  the  Testaments,  and  traced  to  a  further 
common  source. 

In  261S  a  "  dispensation  from  heaven  "  is  brought  in 
to  remove  the  guilt  of  Jacob's  deceit ;  and  in  483  Moses' 
omission  to  circumcise  his  son  is  passed  over  by  a  different 
version  of  the  incident.     (See  Exod.  42*.) 

With  this  overloading  of  the  original  text  and 
narrative  of  the  Old  Testament  with  legend  may  be 
compared  the  growth  of  Christian  legend  in  mediaeval 
times,  alluded  to  and  condemned  by  the  Prayer-Book. 
(See  "  Concerning  the  Service  of  the  Church.") 

Let  us  now  glance  at  another  of  these  books,  typical 
of  the  best  Scribal  teaching,  the  "  Testaments  of  the 
Twelve  Patriarchs,"  *  a  book  written  c.  109-106,  at 
the  end  of  John  Hyrcanus'  reign,  and  purporting  to 
be  the  charges  given  by  the  sons  of  Jacob  on  their 
deathbeds  to  their  descendants.  Its  influence  on  the 
New  Testament  will  be  at  once  apparent. 

Here  is  a  passage  which  breathes  a  very  different 
spirit  to  the  usual  Jewish  vindictiveness  (seen  at  its 
worst  in  Ps.  109),  and  showing  how  Christian  ethics 
were  already  on  the  way. 

T.  Simeon  4^  ff.,  "  Now  Joseph  was  a  good  man, 
and  had  the  spirit  of  God  within  him  :  being  com- 
passionate and  pitiful  he  bore  no  malice  against  me, 
but  loved  me  even  as  the  rest  of  his  brethren.  Beware, 
therefore,  my  children,  of  all  jealousy  and  envy,  and 
walk  in  singleness  of  heart.  ...  Do  ye  also,  my  children, 

♦  Cf.  Plummer,  "St.  Matthew,"  p.  xxxiv. 


166  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

love  each  one  his  brother  with  a  good  heart,  and  the 
spirit  of  envy  will  withdraw  from  you." 

In  6^  we  have  indications  of  one  form  of  the  Messianic 
hope,  i.e.  a  visible  theocracy  on  earth  and  an  inter- 
vention of  God  Himself,  and  of  the  widely-developed 
belief  in  a  spirit- world.  "  For  the  Lord  shall  appear 
on  earth,  and  Himself  save  men.  Then  shall  all  the 
spirits  of  deceit  be  given  to  be  trodden  imderfoot,  and 
men  shall  rule  over  wicked  spirits."     (Cf.  Lk.  10^^.) 

Levi,  as  might  be  expected,  voices  the  ritualistic 
demand  :  "  Before  entering  into  the  holy  place,  bathe  ; 
and  when  thou  offerest  the  sacrifice,  wash ;  and  again, 
when  thou  finishest  the  sacrifice,  wash.  Of  twelve 
trees  having  leaves  offer  to  the  Lord,  as  Abraham  taught 
me  also.  And  of  every  clean  beast  and  bird  offer  a 
sacrifice  to  the  Lord.  And  of  all  thy  first-fruits  and  of 
wine  offer  the  first,  as  a  sacrifice  to  the  Lord  God  ;  and 
everysacrifice  thoushalt  salt  with  salt"  (9^^ff.;  cf.  Mk.Q'*^). 

Chapter  13  is  a  poem  expressing  the  ideal  rule  of 
life.  It  is  too  long  to  quote  here  in  full ;  but  the 
following  verses  should  be  noticed  :  "  Work  righteous- 
ness, therefore,  my  children,  upon  the  earth,  that  ye 
may  have  it  as  a  treasure  in  heaven  "  (v.  5  ;  cf .  Mt.  6^0)  ; 
"  Whosoever  teaches  noble  things  and  does  them " 
(v.  9  ;  cf.  Mt.  519  ;  724,  26). 

Chapter  18  describes  the  coming  of  the  Messiah. 
Here  arc  one  or  two  striking  extracts  : 

"  The  heavens  shall  be  opened. 
And  from  the  temple  of  glory  shall  come  upon  him 
sanctification, 


THE  SCRIBES  AND  THEIR  TEACHING      167 

With  the  Father's  voice  as  from  Abraham  to  Isaac. 
And  the  glory  of  the  Most  High  shall  be  uttered 

over  him, 
And  the  spirit  of  understanding  and  sanctification 

shall  rest  upon  him  "  (vv.  6,  7  ;  cf.  Mt.  S^^ ; 

2  Pet.  117). 
"  In  his  priesthood  the  Gentiles  shall  be  multiplied 

in  knowledge  upon  the  earth, 
And  enlightened  through  the  grace  of  the  Lord.  .  . 
And  he  shall  open  the  gates  of  Paradise, 
And  shall  remove   the   threatening  sword  against 

Adam. 
And  he  shall  give  to  the  saints  to  eat  from  the  tree  of 

life. 
And  the  spirit  of  holiness  shall  be  on  them. 
And  Beliar  shall  be  boimd  by  him, 
And  he  shall  give  power   to   his  children  to   tread 

upon  the  evil  spirits  "     (vv.  9-12  ;  cf.  Rev.  2', 

202,  222  .  Mt.  1229  ;  Lk.  lO^^). 

In  T.  Judah  (24,  25)  is  another  remarkable  fore- 
cast of  Christ's  coming,  and  especially  the  assertion 
of  His  "  meekness,"  a  strange  and  unexpected  ideal  at 
this  period  :— 

"  And  after  these  things  shall  a  star  arise  to  you 

from  Jacob  in  peace. 
And  a  man  shall  arise  like  the  sun  of  righteousness, 
Walking  with  the  sons  of  men  in  meekness  and 

righteousness  (cf.  Mt.  5^). 
And  no  sin  shall  be  found  in  him. 


168         THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

And  the  heavens  shall  be  opened  unto  him, 

To  pour  out  the  spirit,  even  the  blessing  of  the 

Holy  Father; 
And  He  shall  pour  out  the  spirit  of  grace  upon  you  ; 
And  ye  shall  be  unto  Him  sons  in  truth, 
And  ye  shall  walk  in  His  commandments  first  and 

last.'* 

*'  And  there  shall  be    there  no  spirit  of  deceit   of 
Beliar, 
For  he  shall  be  cast  into  the  fire  for  ever  "  (cf.  Rev. 
20"). 

With  T.  Issachar  32,  "  singleness  "  of  heart,  cf.  Eph. 
65,  Col.  322  ;  with  34,  "  busybody,"  cf.  1  Tim.  5i3  ;  with 
3^  "  singleness  of  eye,"  cf.  Mt.  622  ;  with  3^,  "  singleness 
of  heart  "=generosity,  cf.  Rom.  128,  2  Cor.  9^^. 

A  curious  passage  is  T.  Zebulun  5-8,  showing  the 
characteristic  doctrine  that  all  good  done  to  another 
comes  back  "with  interest "  ;  and  notable  for  the  way 
in  which  it  combats  the  equally  prevalent  spirit  of 
vindictiveness  (cf.  p.  158  ;   and  Lk.  6^0-35). 

"  I  was  the  first  to  make  a  boat  to  sail  upon  the  sea, 
for  the  Lord  gave  me  understanding  and  wisdom  therein. 
And  I  let  down  a  rudder  behind  it,  and  I  stretched  a 
sail  upon  another  upright  piece  of  wood  in  the  midst. 
And  I  sailed  therein  along  the  shores,  catching  fish  for 
the  house  of  my  father  until  we  came  to  Egypt.  And 
through  compassion   I   shared   my  catch   with   every 


THE  SCRIBES  AND  THEIR  TEACHING     169 

stranger.  And  if  a  man  were  a  stranger,  or  sick,  or 
aged,  I  boiled  the  fish,  and  dressed  them  well,  and  offered 
them  to  all  men,  as  every  man  had  need,  grieving  with 
and  having  compassion  upon  them.  Wherefore  also 
the  Lord  satisfied  me  with  abundance  of  fish  when 
catching  fish  ;  for  he  that  shareth  with  his  neighbour 
receiveth  manifold  more  from  the  Lord.  For  five  years 
I  caught  fish,  and  gave  thereof  to  every  man  whom  I 
saw,  and  sufficed  for  all  the  house  of  my  father.  And 
in  the  summer  I  caught  fish,  and  in  the  winter  I  kept 
sheep  with  my  brethren. 

"  Now  I  will  declare  unto  you  what  I  did.  I  saw  a 
man  in  distress  through  nakedness  in  winter-time,  and 
had  compassion  upon  him,  and  stole  away  a  garment 
secretly  from  my  father's  house,  and  gave  it  to  him 
who  was  in  distress.  Do  you,  therefore,  my  children, 
from  that  which  God  bestoweth  upon  you,  show  com- 
passion and  mercy  without  hesitation  to  all  men,  and 
give  to  every  man  with  a  good  heart.  And  if  ye  have 
not  the  wherewithal  to  give  to  him  that  needeth,  have 
compassion  for  him  in  bowels  of  mercy.  I  know  that 
my  hand  found  not  the  wherewithal  to  give  to  him  that 
needed,  and  I  walked  with  him  weeping  for  seven  furlongs, 
and  my  bowels  yearned  towards  him  in  compassion." 
(Cf .  for  some  of  the  expressions  and  sentiments  Mt.  5^2  ; 
Phil.  P  ;  Col.  312  ;  1  Jn.  317 ;  Jude  22.) 

In  T.  Dan.  5  we  have  "  the  earHest  authority  for 
conjoining  love  to  God  and  love  to  one's  neighbour  " 
(Charles),  as  well  as  passages  which  are  clearly  reflected 
in  the  New  Testament : 


170         THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

"  Speak  truth  each  one  with  his  neighbour, 
So  shall  ye  not  fall  into  wrath  and  confusion  ; 
But  ye  shall  be  in  peace,  having  the  God  of  peace, 
So  shall  no  war  prevail  over  you. 
Love  the  Lord  through  all  your  life, 
And  one  another  with  a  true  heart.  " 

(Cf.  Eph.  425 .   1  Thess.  523  ;  Rom.  1533  j  phil.  4^  ; 
Mt.  2237.) 

"  And  there  shall  arise  unto  you  from  the  tribe  of 

Levi  the  salvation  of  the  Lord  ; 
And  he  shall  make  war  against  Beliar, 
And    execute    an    everlasting    vengeance    on    our 

enemies ; 
And  the  captivity  shall  he  take  from  Beliar, 
And  turn  disobedient  hearts  unto  the  Lord, 
And  give  to  them  that  call  upon  him  eternal  peace. 
And  the  saints  shall  rest  in  Eden, 
And  in  the  new  Jerusalem  shall  the  righteous  rejoice, 
And  it  shall  be  unto  the  glory  of  God  for  ever." 

(Cf.  Lk.  117 .   i^ev.  312,  212.) 

One  of  the  most  striking  of  passages  is  contained  in 
T.  Joseph  (15  ff.) : 

*'  I  was  sold  into  slavery,  and  the  Lord  of  all  made 

me  free  ; 
I  was  taken  into  captivity,  and  His  strong  hand 

succoured  me. 
I  was  beset  with  hunger,  and  the  Lord  Himself 

nourished  me. 


THE  SCRIBES  AND  THEIR  TEACHING     171 

1  was  alone,  and  God  comforted  me  : 

I  was  sick,  and  the  Lord  visited  me  : 

I  was  in  prison,  and  my  God  showed  favour  unto 

me ; 
In  bonds,  and  He  released  me  ; 
Slandered,  and  He  pleaded  my  cause  ; 
Bitterly  spoken  against  by  the  Egyptians,  and  He 

delivered  me  ; 
Envied  by  my  fellow-slaves,  and  He  exalted  me.'* 

The  relation  to  Mt.  25^5  is  obvious. 

Scarcely  less  remarkable  is  18^  ^,  although  similar 
sentiments  are  to  be  found  in  2  Kings  6^2 ;  2  Chron. 
2815 ;  Prov.  2521  : 

"  If  ye  also,  therefore,  walk  in  the  commandments 
of  the  Lord,  my  children.  He  will  exalt  you  there,  and 
will  bless  you  with  good  things  for  ever  and  ever.  And 
if  anyone  seeketh  to  do  evil  unto  you,  do  well  unto  him, 
and  pray  for  him,  and  ye  shall  be  redeemed  of  the  Lord 
from  all  evil." 

(Here  cf.  Lk.  627 ;  Rom.  122o.) 

In  T.  Benjamin  (3^)  is  a  prophecy  of  the  Messiah  : 
"  A  blameless  one  shall  be  delivered  up  for  lawless 
men,  and  a  sinless  one  shall  die  for  ungodly  men." 
(Cf.  Jn.  1150.) 

Of  T.  Benj.  4  we  have  echoes  in  the  New  Testament : 

"  See  ye,  therefore,  my  children,  the  end  of  the  good 

man  ?     Be  followers  of  his  compassion,  therefore,  with 

a  good  mind,  that  ye  also  may  wear  crowns  of  glory. 


172  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

For  the  good  man  hath  not  a  dark  eye  ;  for  he  showeth 
mercy  to  all  men,  even  though  they  be  sinners.  And 
though  they  devise  with  vile  intent  concerning  him,  by 
doing  good  he  overcometh  evil,  being  shielded  by  God ; 
and  he  loveth  the  righteous  as  his  own  soul.  If  any 
one  is  glorified,  he  envieth  him  not ;  if  any  one  is 
enriched,  he  is  not  jealous  ;  if  any  one  is  vaUant,  he 
praiseth  him  ;  the  virtuous  man  he  laudeth  ;  on  the 
poor  man  he  hath  mercy  ;  on  the  weak  he  hath  com- 
passion ;  unto  God  he  singeth  praises.  And  him  that 
hath  the  grace  of  a  good  spirit  he  loveth  as  his  own 
soul." 

(For  this  passage  of.  2  Tim.  4^ ;  Jas.  V^ ;  Rev.  2^^  ; 
Mt.  623  ;  Rom.  1221  ;  Jas.  513.) 

In  10^,  ^  is  voiced  the  extension  of  the  kingdom 
to  the  Gentiles,  and  the  words  "  on  the  right  hand  " 
remind  us  of  Mt.  2533  • 

"  Until  the  Lord  shall  reveal  his  salvation  to  all 
Gentiles.  And  then  shall  ye  see  Enoch,  Noah,  and  Shem, 
and  Abraham,  and  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  rising  on  the  right 
hand  in  gladness." 

Remarkable  is  T.  Gad.  5  :  "  Hatred,  therefore,  is 
evil,  for  it  constantly  mateth  with  lying,  speaking 
against  the  truth  ;  and  it  maketh  small  things  to  be 
great,  and  causeth  the  light  to  be  darkness,  and  calleth 
the  sweet  bitter,  and  teacheth  slander,  and  kindleth 
wrath,  and  stirreth  up  war  and  violence,  and  all 
covetousness  ;  it  filleth  the  heart  with  evils  and  devilish 
poison.  .  .  .  drive  forth  hatred,  which  is  of  the  devil, 
and  cleave  to  the  love  of  God.    Righteousness  casteth 


THE  SCRIBES  AND   THEIR  TEACHING     173 

out  hatred,  humility  destroyeth  envy  .  .  .  the  fear  of 
God  overcometh  hatred.  For  fearing  lest  he  should 
offend  the  Lord,  he  will  not  do  wrong  to  any  man,  even 
in  thought.  .  .  .  For  true  repentance  after  a  godly 
sort  destroyeth  ignorance  and  driveth  away  the  dark- 
ness, and  enlighteneth  the  eyes,  and  giveth  knowledge 
to  the  soul,  and  leadeth  the  mind  to  salvation." 

(Here  cf.  Jas.  3i4  ff.,  4^ ;  Mt.  521   27;  2  Cor.  710.) 

But  by  far  the  most  striking  and  remarkable  passage 
is  T.  Gad.  6^,  unique  in  its  "  Christian  "  sentiment : 

"  Love  ye  one  another  from  the  heart ;  and  if  a  man 
sin  against  thee,  speak  peaceably  to  him,  and  in  thy 
soul  hold  not  guile  ;  and  if  he  repent  and  confess,  forgive 
him." 

Dr.  Charles  calls  this  passage  unique  in  all  ancient 
literature,  and  for  Judaism  it  constitutes  a  new  departure 
in  ethics,  for  although  the  conduct  of  Joseph  in  Genesis 
42  ff.  illustrates  it  admirably,  Jewish  writers  did  not 
enlarge  upon  it  as  an  ideal  to  be  followed ;  and  the 
noble  passages  Lev.  19^^,  Prov.  2521,  gj^.  282,  ^re  more 
than  counterbalanced  by  others,  such  as  Prov.  24^^, 
Ps.  4110.  The  parallel  with  Mt.  1815,  Lk.  17^,  is  so 
clear  that  we  must  infer  our  Lord's  familiarity  with  it. 
(Cf.  also  Mt.  614 ;   Rom.  W^.) 

Allusion  has  already  been  made  to  some  of  the 
frequent  mentions  of  Scribes  and  Pharisees  in  the  New 
Testament,  and  there  are  others  which  should  be  noted. 
Their  ostentatious  alms  are  condemned  in  the  Sermon 
on  the  Mount  (Mt.  6^),  and  the  hollowness  of  their 
so-called  "righteousness'!  (520,  Lk.  12\  189).    Their 


174  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

exclusiveness  showed  itself  in  the  complaint  that  Christ 
mixed  with  publicans  and  sinners  (Mt.  9^^,  Lk.  7^0). 
Their  belief  in  a  numerous  and  highly-organised  world  of 
spirits  appears  in  the  remark  about  casting  out  devils 
through  Beelzebub  (Mt.  1224;  Mt.  2330 ;  Acts  23^). 
Their  professed  devotion  to  the  Scriptures  is  criticised 
by  Him,  "Have  ye  never  read?"  (Mt.  2P6 ;  cf. 
Jn.  539,  "  Ye  search  the  Scriptures,  because  ye  think 
that  in  them  ye  have  eternal  hfe.")  And  their  pro- 
fessional jealousy  appears  in  "  How  knoweth  this  man 
letters,  having  never  learned  ?  "  (Jn.  71^  ;  cf.  Mt.  21^3  ; 
Lk.  517  fi.) 

Of  their  methods  of  interpretation,  ecclesiasticism, 
and  casuistry,  we  have  examples  in  Christ's  teaching 
*'  as  one  having  authority,  and  not  as  the  Scribes,"  who 
said  "  Rabbi  .  .  .  said,"  i.e.  referring  to  tradition  and 
not  themselves ;  the  complaint  about  picking  the 
ears  of  corn  on  the  Sabbath  ;  in  the  questions  about 
the  tribute,  the  woman  with  seven  husbands,  and  the 
Messiah  (Mt.  7^9,  122,  22i5,  23^  4i)  ;  in  the  dispute  with 
the  disciples  of  St.  John  Baptist  about  purifying  ;  and 
the  rejection  of  His  witness  of  Himself  (Jn.  325,  8^3  ; 
cf.  Mt.  521,  27^  93^  131,  1G2). 

Their  foibles  and  shortcomings  were  not  unnoticed 
by  themselves  ;  here  is  a  list  of  the  various  kinds  of 
Pharisees,  compiled  by  their  own  Rabbis  : 

i.  The  Shoulder-Pharisee,  who  wore  openly  on  his 

shoulder  a  list  of  his  good  deeds. 
ii.  The  Temporising  Pharisee,  who  begged  for  time 

that  he  might  do  a  good  deed. 


THE  SCRIBES  AND  THEIR  TEACHING     175 

iii.  The  Calculating  Pharisee,  who  said  :  "  My  sins 
are  more  than  counterbalanced  by  my  many 
virtues." 

iv.  The  Saving  Pharisee,  who  said :  "I  will  save  a 
little  from  my  modest  fortune  to  perform  a 
work  of  charity." 

v.  The  Pharisee  who  said  :  "  Would  that  I  knew 
of  a  sin  which  I  had  committed,  in  order  that 
I  might  make  reparation  by  an  act  of  virtue." 

vi.  The  God-fearing  Pharisee,  like  Job. 

vii.  The  God-loving  Pharisee,  like  Abraham. 

(See  Encycl.  Bibl.,  p.  4325.) 

In  Mt.  23,  Lk.  11 3^,  a  most  scathing  indictment 
of  them  is  put  into  the  mouth  of  our  Lord,  and  it  has 
not  unnaturally  coloured  most  subsequent  judgments 
passed  upon  them.  It  may  not,  indeed,  be  contra- 
dicted, but  it  may,  and  should  be  qualified ;  and  when 
all  is  said  and  done  we  must  allow  a  high  place  to  the 
teaching  and  work  of  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees.  Perhaps 
the  judgment  of  posterity  may  be  in  a  better  position 
to  form  a  fairer  estimate  of  them  and  their  work,  than 
the  necessarily  biassed  minds  of  their  contemporaries. 

One  of  the  best  proofs  of  its  value,  that  it  was  not 
wholly  evil  or  barren  of  fruit,  is  to  be  seen  in  its 
literature,  and  the  use  that  our  Lord  Himself  made  of 
its  moral  teachings.  (Examples  have  been  largely  given 
in  the  present  chapter.)  There  are  blots  on  the  Psalms, 
but  none  can  deny  the  influence,  the  inspiration,  the 
comfort  that  they  have  had  and  still  exercise ;  none 
would  rule  them  out  of  the  Christian  Church  (except, 


176  THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

possibly,  Ps.  109).  There  is  much  in  Sirach  and  in 
Proverbs  that  is  of  value  as  practical  advice.  The 
other  Jewish  writings  have  been  shown  to  contain 
much  that  is  both  beautiful  and  ennobhng.  The  Dean 
of  Lichfield,  Dr.  Savage,  in  a  most  interesting  book, 
"  The  Gospel  of  the  Kingdom,"  has  shown  how  tho- 
roughly Rabbinic  in  its  essence  is  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount,  how  rooted  in  the  teaching  of  the  Scribes.  He 
shows,  certainly,  how  our  Lord  improved  upon  and 
heightened  it ;  but  this  in  no  way  detracts  from  its 
value  ;  it  rather  shows  how  eternal  is  its  value,  in  spite 
of  its  excrescences,  and  the  extravagances  and  the 
defects  of  its  exponents. 

The  fact  remains  that  the  religion  of  our  Lord's  day 
was  entirely  due  to  the  labours  of  the  Scribes  and 
Pharisees.  They  had  preserved  it  through  the  ages, 
and  to  it  He  and  His  disciples  were  themselves  indebted 
for  their  knowledge  and  reHgious  upbringing.  He  also 
upheld  their  authority  :  "  Think  not  that  I  am  come 
to  destroy  the  Law  or  the  Prophets  ;  I  came  not  to 
destroy,  but  to  fulfil.  For  verily  I  say  unto  you.  Till 
heaven  and  earth  pass  away,  one  jot  or  one  tittle  shall 
in  no  wise  pass  away  from  the  Law,  till  all  things  be 
accompUshed."  "It  is  easier  for  heaven  and  earth 
to  pass  away,  than  for  one  tittle  of  the  Law  to  fall  " 
(Mt.  517,  Lk.  1617).  He  lived  in  the  hght  of  their 
teaching  ;  it  was  with  texts  from  Deuteronomy  that 
He  repelled  each  of  His  three  Temptations.  It  was  able 
to  produce  and  preserve  such  characters  as  Zacharias 
and  Elisabeth,  Joseph  and  Mary,  Simeon  and  Anna, 
Joseph  of  Arimathea,   Nicodemus,  Gamaliel.    To  one 


THE  SCRIBES  AND  THEIR  TEACHING     177 

Scribe  our  Lord  said :  "  Thou  art  not  far  from  the 
Kingdom  of  God  "  (Mk.  1234).  He  upheld  their  office, 
even  if  He  condemned  their  works  (Mt.  13^2^  232,  3). 
"  Many  of  the  rulers  beHeved  on  Him  '*  (Jn.  12^7), 
even  if  they  did  not  confess  Him  at  first.  In  Pharisaism 
were  nurtured  the  thousands  who  yielded  to  the  preaching 
of  the  Apostles,  and  became  the  first  Christians,  the 
nucleus  of  the  Catholic  Church  ;  of  the  priests  "  a  great 
company  "  joined  with  the  people,  and  "  became  obedient 
to  the  Faith  "  (Acts  6^).  St.  Paul  was  "  a  Pharisee  and 
a  son  of  Pharisees  "  (Acts  23®) ;  and  if  his  upbringing 
could  not  satisfy  his  aspirations,  it  did  not  stifle  them. 
Their  rule  of  life,  in  its  general  principles,  was  safe,  if 
cautious ;  it  was  entirely  honourable  and  ennobHng, 
even  if  it  insisted  much  on  the  promise  of  reward ;  it 
was  its  extravagances  that  our  Lord  condemned,  rather 
than  its  inner  self. 

Moreover,  it  encouraged  and  strengthened  the 
gentler  and  weaker  spirits ;  it  acted  as  a  check  to 
^vilder  nationalistic  hopes ;  it  preserved  the  truth  and 
value  of  personal  piety,  and  the  inwardness  of  religion. 
Its  regulation  of  daily  life  encouraged  the  sense  of  God's 
authority,  and  made  for  both  orderliness  of  conduct  and 
the  recognition  of  God  in  daily  affairs.  Its  discipline 
encouraged  a  high  standard  of  life.  It  provided  an 
atmosphere  which  surrounded  children  from  their 
earhest  years,  and  could  not  fail  to  react  on  their  cha- 
racters. (Cf.  Philo,  quoted  p.  39.)  It  certainly  fostered 
and  kept  aHve  within  the  Jew  an  indomitable  faith,  an 
unquenchable  hope,  and  a  very  real  love  towards  his 
own  race,  if  not  to  all.    And  when  the  nation  practically 

M 


178         THE  CRADLE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

ceased  to  have  an  independent  existence  after  the 
capture  of  Jerusalem,  it  was  Pharisaism  and  the  Pharisees 
who  preserved  what  was  left,  and  formed  the  rallying 
point  and  the  inspiration  for  the  thousands  of  Jews,  now 
a  nation  without  a  home,  and  welded  them  into  a  vast 
international  brotherhood  or  ecclesia.  It  was  Pharisaism 
out  of  which  was  born  the  Ecclesia,  the  Holy  Catholic 
Church  of  Christ. 


INDEX 


Antiochus   Epiphaiies,   r>l,    60, 

83,  118,  123,  148 
Apocalyptic  movement,  87 


Dispersion,  06 


!  M 

Messianic  hope,  30,  4.5 


I  Pharisees,  133,  173 
Philo,  72,  81 
Psalms,  159 
Psalms  of  Solomon,  139 


Ecclesiastes,  79 
Ecclesiasticus,  1\ 
Education,  38 
Essenes,  108 


Galileans,  115 


H 

Haggada,  162 
Hellenism,  05,  83,  118 
Herod  the  Great,  21 
Herodians,  121 
Historical  conditions,  10,  10 


Job,  78 
Jubilees,  lOi 


Law,  the,  151 
Logos,  80 


II 

Roman  influence,  32 


S 

Sadducees,  123 
Samaritans,  114 
Scribes,  42,  70,  147,  173 
Septuagint,  72 
Social  conditions,  32 
Synagogue,  84,  104 


Testaments    of    the    XIT. 
Patriarchs,  105 


Wisdom,  74 
Wisdom  (Book  of),  79 


Zadokites,  126 
Zadokite  Fragment,  126 
Zealots,  116 


PRINTED  BY 

WILLIAM  CLOWES  AND  SONS,  LIMITED, 

LONDON  AND  BECCLES. 


BS1196.8.P94 

The  cradle  of  Christianity,  or,  Some 


Princeton  Theological  Semmary-Speer  Library 


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